
Go[)>TiglitN^ . 

COPYRIGHT DEPCSm 






\j 



^ K 7 




teachers College 
Columbia XDlniverstt^ 



A Digest of 
Educational Sociology 

By DAVID SNEDDEN, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



Published by 

Uimt^HB QlolUg^, Olalttmbta IntwrrHxtg 

NEW YORK CITY 
1920 



A Digest of 
Educational Sociology 

By DAVID SNEDDEN, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



^*:' 



w 



-.V ^ 



Published by 

^tuc^ns (Boiit^t, €alnmbia Intnprattg 

NEW YORK CITY 
1920 



Copyright, 1920, by David Snedden 






©CI.A6il641 

APR 1-; m\ 



CONTENTS 



I The Meaning of Educational Sociology 1 

II Social Structures 11 

III Social Functionings 28 

IV Social Standards Determining Educational Objectives.... 51 
V Specific Objectives of Education 55 

VI The Evolution of Education 60 

VII Physical Education 64 

VIII Vocational Education 73 

IX Social Education 79 

X Cultural Education 85 

XI Miscellaneous Objectives 89 

XII Agencies of Education 92 

XIII Mechanisms of Education 98 

XIV Construction of Curricula 105 

XV Objectives in Developmental Control of Children, 

Ages 1-4 112 

XVI Objectives of Education and Development of Children, 

Ages 4-6 113 

XVII Objectives of School Education, Ages 6-9 120 

XVIII Objectives of School Education, Normals, Ages 9-12 126 

XIX Objectives of School Education, Normals, Ages 12-14 ....130 

XX Objectives of General School Education, normal 

Youths, Ages 12-18 135 

XXI Objectives of Liberal Schools for Persons, Ages 18-22 138 

XXII Adaptations of Education to Special Social Classes 139 

XXIII Objectives of Special Education for Physical Def ectives . . . 143 

XXIV Objectives of Special Education for the Blind 145 

XXV Objectives of Special Education for Social Offenders 147 

XXVI English Language 150 

XXVII Foreign Languages and Literature — Ancient 156 

XXVIII Foreign Languages and Literature — Modern 159 

XXIX Mathematics 163 

XXX Natural Science 166 

iii 



IV 



CONTENTS 



XXXI Mental Science 170 

XXXII Social Science (including History) 174 

XXXIII Geography 184 

XXXIV The Fine Arts 188 

XXXV English Literature 192 

XXXVI Practical Arts 198 

XXXVII Agricultural Vocational Education 203 

XXXVIII Commercial Vocational Education 207 

XXXIX Homemaking Vocational Education 210 

XL Industrial Vocational Education 213 

XLI Professional Education 218 

XLII Physical Education 220 

XLIII Guidance 224 

XLIV Curriculum Problems for Investigation 237 

XLV Problems of Objectives of Subjects for Investigation 248 

XLVI Miscellaneous Problems for Investigation 255 

XLVII Bibliographical References 256 



CHAPTER I 

THE MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

A. Introductory 

Sociology denotes the science and study of human social groupings, 
including the factors that condition such social groupings, the evolution 
of group forms, and the processes by which groups may be improved, 
both as collective agencies and as means of promoting qualities desired in 
individuals. Human social groups are of many kinds in form and in 
functioning. 

Education may be distinguished as of two kinds — that carried on in 
schools or other agencies, specialized for educational purposes ; and that 
effected as a by-product of vocational pursuits, family nurture, worship, 
recreation, social control, defence, and the like. Both kinds of education 
are designed, in so far as they are at all purposive, to prepare, adjust, or 
re-shape individuals for increased usefulness to themselves or to others 
(including deities), according as such usefulness is conceived at the time. 

Many social groupings are relatively permanent — nations, cities, churches 
— while it is the constant desire of the best members of society that 
others, less continuous — families, corporations, parties, labor unions — 
shall take approved forms and functions. 

But individual members of all groups come and go — their effective 
membership in all groups rarely exceeding fifty years, and being in fact 
commonly only two or three decades. Hence a large part of purposive 
education has always been designed rather to prepare the individual child, 
youth, or adult for more effective fitting into one or more groups than 
for usefulness to himself — although in the long run the two forms of 
usefulness tend in the main to coincide. 

Furthermore, by all ordinary standards, social or group life tends to 
become more involved, more extensive, more potential of good or bad 
results — states become larger, customs must be replaced by laws, economic 
specialization and interdependence increase. The processes of preparing 
the young for good group membership become more difficult, require more 
scientific knowledge, necessitate more complicated administration. 

Hence the convictions of modern peoples that a constantly increasing 
amount of purposive and systematic education of both young and adults 
is needed to insure right social membership on the part of oncoming gen- 
erations of individuals. 

In its prescientific stages, both the specific objectives (aims, purposes) 
of education and its methods were crystallized in customs and traditions, 
products usually of insensible accretions, perpetuated by "trial and success" 

I 



2 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

processes, and occasionally by the inventiveness of a genius. Under 
dynamic social conditions educational practice often lags heavily, as do 
practices in other departments where custom and precedent play large 
parts — religion, law, sumptuary standards. (Cf. China, England, classical 
education, education of women, and unnumbered instances in current 
curricula.) 

The twentieth century finds many attempts to make education more 
varied, extended, flexible, individualized, socially functional. Movements 
for "enrichment of curricula," for "child study," and for socialization of 
school life are symptomatic of new interests and points of view. Psychol- 
ogy, always expected to furnish guidance to methods of teaching, has 
lately reached the point where it can actually do so. Educational adminis- 
tration becomes scientific in certain material aspects — ^buildings, finance, 
control. 

But endless old difficulties persist and new ones develop because objec- 
tives remain so largely on faith levels — tied up in beliefs, customs, tradi- 
tions, radical aspirations, the catch-words and formulae of partisan cults 
and sects. Sociology itself, just emerging from metaphysical swaddling 
clothes, has not been regarded as a promising source of guidance. Little 
scientific effort has yet been given to direct analysis of aims and values 
in any but a few departments of education. 

Ultimately, a developed sociology must chiefly provide the objectives 
required to give definiteness of purpose to major and minor educational 
procedures. Sociology must reveal what are the goals expected to be 
realized for individuals (of various kinds and potentialities) as well as 
for social groups through their adjusted individual members. Out of a 
thousand possible paths that may be taken by education there must, in a 
given situation, be found the score that are most timely and essential, 
while psychology will provide means of ascertaining the educabilities of 
given individuals and the most effective means of reaching stated goals. 
Some concrete problems will reveal existing needs.' 

1. For many years American elementary schools have made much of 
the subjects of arithmetic, as the high schools have of algebra and plane 
geometry. In each case the subjects have grown in elaborateness and 
complexity while various traditions have gained currency as to their 
educational values. Private schools, women's colleges, and other habitu- 
ally conservative institutions still impute mystic values to algebra and 
geometry, as, naturally, also successful laymen, whose conceptions of 
educational values were formed two or more decades ago. 

If systematic experimentation (for which education is now ready in 
this field) should show that the mathematical subjects, and especially 
their more involved and less "practical" phases, possess unique values for 
mental training (discipline of "reasoning powers," etc.) analogous to the 
alleged values of Indian clubs or the trapeze in physical discipline, then, 
of course, justification for the prescription of these subjects for admission 

(i) See Snedden, D.. "Educational Sociolojfy," Am. Jour, of Soc. 25:120. 



MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 3 

to college, graduation from high school, or promotion in elementary 
school would exist. 

Apart from these still uncertain values, the mathematical studies possess 
obvious values to some or all individuals and therefore to society. Cer- 
tain vocations — electrical engineering, bookkeeping, pharmacy, artillery 
direction, navigation, the plumber's trade — require, respectively, for their 
successful prosecution certain specialized knowledge and ability to use 
mathematics. All persons must buy commodities, and all ought to read 
journals, and to invest savings ("consumers needs"). For each of these 
functions some (perhaps not much) knowledge of arithmetic is very 
desirable, if not indispensable, for all. Here we find justification for 
"general mathematics." 

But our methods of meeting "social needs" through these studies are 
now probably ill-adjusted and wasteful in extreme. General arithmetic 
is filled with topics appropriate only for specialized vocations. Very few 
girls can ever expect to use algebra vocationally. Slow children are 
seldom well trained in needed elemental processes. Essential "approxima- 
tion" calculation is neglected. Cultural ("appreciation") values are rarely 
realized. 

Can we now as results of careful studies of social needs : (a) define 
"consumers needs'' which should be basis of general or universally pre- 
scribed arithmetic; (b) define actual prevocational offerings possible to 
elementary school, high school, and liberal arts college, holding them as 
electives for persons reasonably sure of needing them; (c) define the 
specialized mathematics appropriate to various types of vocational (basic 
and extension) schools; and (d) promote the development of "apprecia- 
tion" subjects as elective offerings to increase "general culture"? Here 
lie important fields of investigation. 

2. Much time is now given in elementary schools to the teaching of 
"oral reading." Nevertheless most adults (including, sad to say, most 
teachers) read aloud poorly. Once when books and papers were scarce 
oral reading served a useful social function — can it ever again? We all 
move towards silent reading, individualized to tastes and needs. Only a 
half-score of vocations put a premium on the "good oral reader." These 
questions of social objective now need answers: (a) Under present con- 
ditions are oral reading abilities of any special significance to adults 
generally, for cultural, civic or vocational purposes? (b) Is "silent read- 
ing," now obviously a universal need, well taught (or systematically taught 
at all) at present? (c) Except in very elementary stages (first two 
grades) is oral reading probably a hurtful rather than a helpful means 
of teaching silent reading? (d) What are the vocations which really 
require oral reading, and for them can it be elected in advance as a pre- 
vocational^ subject or can it best be given in a vocational school? 

(i) A subject is here called "prevocational" when its functioning in a given vocation 
is known, whilst its character is such that it can profitably be taught in schools normally 
attended before entry on vocational schools. Trigonometry taken in high schools by 
students expecting to enter engineering schools, "pre-medical" biology, and "pre- 
legal" economics taken in liberal arts colleges, are established examples. 



4 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

3. The several states now expend together probably between eight and 
ten million dollars annually on modern language instruction in high 
schools. What are the purposes, and what the present results, of this 
expenditure? What results do we expect in terms of adult powers of 
reading? speaking? written composition? What standards do we hold 
of these powers, and what expenditures of time and energy have we 
estimated to be necessary to their realization? What are really our ex- 
pectations as to obscure cultural appreciations — of peoples, literatures, 
reactions on English, vocational guidance? Are these realized? Why 
do we permit, even encourage, sometimes prescribe, two modern languages 
when tangible results in one are very doubtful? Hardly any criticism can 
be too severe in reference to the superficial, aspirational, hit-or-miss objec- 
tives of American modern language instruction. Difficulties involved are 
more fundamental than poor methods of teaching. They lie first in 
domain of social purposes. 

Elaborate studies of social need should soon be provided, (o) Is it 
important that some American adults should, in the next generation, read 
with ease one of these : French, German, Japanese, Russian, Chinese, 
Spanish, Portuguese? How many, roughly, in each — for their own voca- 
tional needs? for the social needs of the nation? for society's needs of 
radiant sources of cultural appreciations? Similarly, are speaking (and 
auditory) powers necessary? Writing powers? For what numbers? 

{h) What investment of time and learning energy will normally be 
required in the case of persons of super-average native linguistic abilities 
to attain to profitable powers in above directions, if learning is begun at 
age 20? 18? 14? Is earlier beginning — at age 6 or 2 — practicable for 
public education? 

(c) What means shall be employed: (i) to select schools which should 
or can profitably undertake teaching of one or more modern language? 
(2) to select the learners who shall be encouraged, perhaps endowed, to 
pursue such studies to worth-while ends? 

4. The place of the fine arts in modern life is as yet far from clear, 
and hence the responsibilities of the schools are naturally most uncer- 
tain. Here is still an active battleground of faiths, aspirations, prejudices 
— protagonistic and antagonistic. A marked example can be found in 
music. The American people now spend much wealth on music of com- 
mercial (and often mechanical) kinds. Persons fond of "better" music 
believe standards of utilization should be raised, but their reasons seem 
to rest largely on unproven assumptions. We need sociological studies of 
these questions: (o) What are the primary, and what the incidental, 
functions of music in modern life— moral refinement and uplift, filling 
leisure time richly, promotion of socialization (sociability, harmony), 
furthering of right worship? 

(h) What are the best means of causing music to function desirably- 
training a few to advanced powers of execution (vocational or specialized 
amateur), training many talented ones to moderate powers of execution 



MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 5 

(singing, playing, chorus leading), or striving to train all in some degree 
of execution, e. g., chorus? 

(c) What are the social values of developed or cultivated capacities 
for appreciation, unaccompanied by any abilities in execution; and can 
such capacities be cultivated, quite independently of attempts at vocal or 
instrumental execution ? 

(d) Is it practicable or desirable clearly to differentiate social func- 
tions that can be ministered to by particular types of music and in educa- 
tion concentrate on approved varieties of music to these ends — patriotism, 
worship, social reform, appreciation of nature, stimulation of filial affec- 
tion, elevation of relations of sexes, serenity in affliction? What can we 
determine as to varieties of music most suited to "wise use of leisure," 
diversion for the mentally fatigued, recreation for the physically fatigued? 
What are specific characteristics of socializing or "democratizing" music? 
What values inhere in "popular" music? Are there cultural values in 
music not explicitly to be defined or consciously to be sought? 

5. The photodrama has come to play a great part in the life of the 
young. It is obviously an emotional agency of much force, whilst its 
influence in revealing the social standards of others and in affecting those 
of persons still plastic is probably much greater than is ordinarily 
assumed. What are the various specific influences exerted by it, inter- 
preted qualitatively as socially constructive, socially destructive, etc.? 
(Our own mature subjective valuations may easily mislead us here) : 
Does the moving picture make for "intellectual instability"? What is 
the evidence? Does it injure eyes or nerves? What evidence? Does 
it provide, for tired persons, a "good use of leisure"? Why? In what 
ways can it, as a commercial agency, be further subjected to right kinds 
of social control? 

B. Summary 
1. Educational Sociology has its analogues in: educational psychol- 
ogy, engineering mathematics, agricultural chemistry, medical biology, 
navigational astronomy, architectural drawing (or art), mining geology, 
etc. In each case a body of "pure" or "detached" knowledge or art is 
drawn upon for particular contributions to a field of practical effort or 
"applied science" (or "art"). 

a. A "pure science" has its customary logical organization. Also, 
a field of applied knowledge (in reality a field of practice) has 
its logical organization. But a "hyphenated" subject, connect- 
ing a field of practice and a pure subject, can rarely have a 
logical organization. It must be selective, first of the elements 
of the pure subjects that are applicable, then of the portions of 
the practice field that are assisted by the knowledge thus carried 
over. 

b. But, in practice, teachers of "applied" sciences have either re- 
quired as prerequisite to their work a general course in the 



6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

pure science, or else have made a considerable portion of the 
applied course consist in reality of the logically arranged ma- 
terials of the pure subject — e.g., "agricuitural" physics often 
presupposes general physics, although such topics as optics, 
acoustics, and, usually, electricity and magnetism, have no rela- 
tion to farm work. 

2. Education, as the scientific study of a field of practice, is reinforced 
by contributions from such "pure" subjects as history, psychology, phil- 
osophy, physiology, economics, architecture, statistics, sociology, etc. 

a. Educational history, philosophy, and architecture are clearly 
defined fields. 

b. Educational psychology, starting with certain perceived needs 
or problems (especially as regards methods of instruction, 
learners* capacities, etc.) in education selects from psychology, 
helpful knowledge and method towards meeting these needs 
and solving these problems, especially as regards learning capac- 
ity and effective methods. 

c. Educational physiology applies in school hygiene, etc.; educa- 
tional economics in the administration of education ; and educa- 
tional statistics involves use of those facts and methods of 
statistics as a scientific study that applies to elucidation of 
education problems. 

3. Education, as a field of practice, (a) deals with persons already 
living in group (i.e., social) relationships; and (b) its largest determin- 
ing purpose is to fit the young for effective participation in group or social 
life, especially as regards vocational, moral, civic, and cultural qualities. 

But the "pure" study of society and societies is sociology (with its 
auxiliary sciences, anthropology, ethnology, social ethics, civics, and even 
political economy and economics). 

Hence educational sociology designates the study that, starting with 
vital problems of education, selects from sociology (and the other social 
sciences) materials and methods that will contribute to the solution of 
these problems. 

a. A minor field of usefulness for educational sociology involves 
interpretation of the instinctive social life of children — as seen 
in gangs, cliques, sports, taboos, imitation, submission to author- 
ity — which may guide in making educational programs and 
providing for discipline, school management, cooperation with 
non-school agencies of by-education (home, shop, etc.). 

b. The major field of usefulness for educational sociology will be 
found in its contributions to the determination and comparative 
evaluation of educational objectives (goals, aims, purposes) ; 
in throwing light on the means and methods requisite to the 
realization of these; and in testing the ultimate efficacy of these 
means and methods. 



MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 7 

c. In a measure other sciences can be drawn upon for definition 
of educational objectives. Standards of physical fitness desired 
or sought on behalf of the individual (in a non-social sense) 
could be derived from biology, "human" zoology, medicine, thus 
giving educational biology, etc. Standards of aesthetic or in- 
tellectual development in a relatively individualistic sense could 
be derived from such contributions of educational psychology 
as are specialized to this end. But so many of the ends of 
education are to be evaluated in terms of social results that vre 
may assume educational sociology to be the major study for 
this purpose. 

C. Problems 

The variety and number of problems presented by the study of the 
possible and desirable objectives of education are almost endless. For 
convenience these can be classified as: 

1. Problems of the objectives which shall be held for school education 
for normal children in regular or customary schools of general education. 
For example : 

o. What are the results to society of kindergarten education as 
now administered? 

h. Assuming the financial and administrative practicability of pro- 
viding for a substantial amount of school education of all 
children between four and six years of age, (or three and five), 
what should be the primary aims of that education? To offset 
deficiencies in home education? To provide for certain forms 
of fuller and more rapid intellectual (or moral or physical) 
development than the home can provide? 

c. What are desirable objectives in the training of children, six to 
twelve, in appreciation of the harmonies found in plastic art? 
musical art? literary art? 

d. What are the actual social objectives that should control in 
the organization of materials of history for elementary school 
purposes? Or, what are the types of social ideals and what the 
bodies of organized social knowledge that should be possessed 
by boys from ten to fifteen years of age as a part of their 
equipment towards citizenship, and how far can these be at- 
tained through instruction in history or other forms of social 
science? 

e. Of what value to society is, or would be, certain definite forms 
of physical and mental training which are or might be accom- 
plished through school education, e.g., advanced ability to handle 
mental arithmetic, great accuracy in mechanical drawing, pre- 
cision in use of grammatical constructions, sharpened percep- 
tion of harmonies of form and color in surroundings, accurate 
markmanship with rifle, fine penmanship, skill in debating, etc.? 



8 



EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 



/. To what extent shall physical education (or physical develop- 
ment) be promoted through the schools? And what part can 
best be played in this by: regular teacher (in lower grades)? 
a special teacher of hygiene (upper grades) ? playground 
teacher? school nurse? school physician? lecturer? 

g. What are desirable objectives of practical arts instruction, ages 
6-12? training, same ages? same subject, ages 12-14 14-16? 

h. What specific values can be comprehended under the term 
"mental training" or "trained mind"? Which of these are 
feasible and under what circumstances? What are current 
illusions as to mental training? 

i. What are the actual results of the by-education for children 
10-15 of: moving pictures? newspapers? libraries? Sunday 
schools? street life and playground? police power? participation 
in productive work? 

/. How are deleterious results to be overcome? How are valu- 
able results to be furthered? 

k. What is meant by moral education? What are the essential 
phases of moral by-education resulting from the school? Does 
the school now achieve any direct moral education? Can it be 
made to do so? What are some possible means? 

/. What part has physical work played in development of youth 
in the past? What are contemporary deficiencies? By what 
means might these be remedied? 
2. Problems of the objectives which shall be held for general education 
for special classes. 

a. Shall educational objectives for subnormals be sharply differ- 
entiated, according as these will probably (o) be prepared for 
independent living in the competitive social order; or (6) be 
retained by the state under custody? 

b. What are desirable minimums of cultural education (including 
mastery of instrumental subjects) for (a) the blind? (&) the 
deaf? (c) the severely crippled? {d) the moron? {e) the 
imbecile? and (/) the deaf -blind? 

c. What are desirable and feasible objectives of education for 
immigrants (non-English speaking) reaching here at 15-25 
years of age? 

d. What is desirable and feasible in extended general education 
of average adults early entered on specialized occupations? 

e. What are the objectives of religious education? What are 
the most effective agencies for it? What are useful means? 
What is possible place of public school? 

3. Problems of objectives for vocational education. 

a. What has been effectiveness of agencies of vocational by- 



MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 9 

education in the past? Are these of diminishing potency? 
Specify by occupations. 

b. What are factors determining the individual's productive com- 
petency: (natural qualities; social inheritance — skill, insight, 
arts, invention ; industrial organization ; capital ; leadership ; 
exchange; individual's health, happiness, will, training, age, 
etc.) ? 

c. Wherein do liberal (or general) education and vocational edu- 

cation differ fundamentally as to objectives? What are the 
essential characteristics of man as producer? As consumer? 
Show graphically man's normal life area of: (a) consumption 
in excess of production; (b) production in excess of con- 
sumption. 

d. Shall we classify as producers : public singers ? soldiers ? 
policemen? merchants? non-wage-earning housewives? teach- 
ers? inventors? children being educated? non-working hold- 
ers of inherited capital? bankers? prisoners? gamblers? 
pensioners ? 

e. To v»^hat extent can vocational efficiency (for specified voca- 
tions) be enhanced by intellectual study (as distinguished from 
training for skill) of factors involved? 

/. What part can apprehension of sociological significances of 
occupational processes play in enhancing vocational interest, 
comprehension, satisfaction, advancement, efficiency? 

g. To what economic tests, or conditions, can learners of vocations 
be subjected, ideally? practically? 

D. Miscellaneous Problems and Topics 

a. What is a "pure science"? Name ten. What is "applied 
science"? Show how chemistry may be applied in cooking, 
soil tillage, tanning, medicine, war, clothing manufacture, pho- 
tography, laundry operations. Can you give any acceptable 
meaning to the phrase "the study of applied chemistry"? Or 
to the phrases, applied physics, applied mathematics, applied 
bacteriology, applied psychology or applied sociology? 

b. What are the sciences drawn on for help in war? agriculture? 
homemaking? manufacture of steel? medicine? street pav- 
ing? food conservation? navigation? Would it be correct to 
describe each of these as a "field of applied science"? As a 
field of practice, is each capable of being organized as a system- 
atic study? 

c. Show the places of the following sciences in the administration 
and processes of education: psychology; hygiene; architecture; 
finance and accounting; sociology. 

d. Does agriculture draw upon the same departments of chemis- 



10 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

try as photography? What portions of astronomy do naviga- 
tors require? What are the essentials of bacteriology to the 
cook? To the food conservator? To the tropical plantation 
manager? What conclusions can you draw as to the extent 
to which a "field of practice" needs to draw on a "pure" 
science? Have you any conclusions as to how an average 
practitioner can best master the portions of the applied sciences 
needed by him? Illustrate from: navigation (astronomy, 
mathematics, meteorology) ; farming (physics, chemistry, bot- 
any, bacteriology, zoology, meteorology, economics, mathe- 
matics) ; war; cotton manufacture; live-stock husbandry; tele- 
phony; primary education (psychology, architecture, plastic art, 
physiology and hygiene, sociology, social psychology). 

e. Illustrate some of the possible contributions of sociological 
studies to practical problems of : 

(1) School discipline and government as a means of prepar- 
ing for adult citizenship? 

(2) The need of special oral English instruction and training 
for children of immigrants (by racial groups). 

(3) Determination of the needs of vocational education in 
schools for the factory vocations followed chiefly by 
girls aged 16-20. 

(4) Discovery of the desirability of teaching Latin as a 
means to better English. 

(5) Effects of city life on growth processes of a physical 
kind? 
References : From bibliographies on Educational Sociology, Social Aspects 
of Education, and General Sociology ascertain various meanings of (o) 
"educational sociology"; (6) "socialized education"; (c) education as a 
means to "social efficiency." For more general treatment of relations of 
"pure" to "applied" science, see chapter references in Walter Libby's 
Introduction to the History of Science. Also various articles indexed in 
American Journal of Sociology. Prescribed references: 4: 3-21; 25: 
247-304; ?7; i_47- 21 : 652-91; 23: 705-28: 22: 21-51; 28: 427-51. Small, 
214-301; Todd, 505-35; Ward (3) (II), 540-634; Ellwood. 



CHAPTER II 
SOCIAL STRUCTURES 
A. General Postulates 

Men, women, and, children nearly always live, work, fight, and play in 
groups. Membership in groups is almost always advantageous to the 
individual, and also disadvantageous in certain respects felt by him. The 
child in the family, the sailor in the crew, the soldier in a company, the 
member of the community, could, probably, not live long if all support 
of others were withdrawn; but at the moment each of these tends to 
resent the constraints, the restrictions, the obligations imposed by his fel- 
lows. So in practically all social groups, and especially with younger or 
less "domesticated" or "socialized" members, there exists a constant ten- 
sion; the group tries to "tame" the individual, while he has a tendency to 
run alone. Hence result differences, strife, sin, crime, and revolt. 

But only through support and protection of groups can human beings 
accomplish much. The child needs the family; young workers need 
parents or other employers ; learners need teachers ; play is not satisfactory 
without companionship ; most work requires cooperators, if not at the 
moment, at least as a previous means of providing tools, arts, etc. ; while 
most worship also seems to require joint effort. For the time a strong 
man may live alone, a genius may work alone ; but even a Robinson Crusoe 
succeeds only by what generations have taught him. 

Hence by long evolution, survival of the fit, elimination of the unfit, 
has been produced that being called man who is first a combination of 
social and individualistic innate tendencies and second the builder of cus- 
toms and laws which in most cases confirm and extend his native quali- 
ties, but in some few cases check or divert them. (Kropotkin; Dealey; 
Boaz ; Fiske (2); Sumner (2). 

It is probable that man has lived in small social groups in anthropoid 
and primitive human stages for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of 
years before he reached the stage where pastoral and agricultural develop- 
ments made practicable large groups. Hence man's deepest social in- 
stincts center in small group relationships — filial, fraternal, parental, gang, 
clique, clan, partnership, chum, company, village. Most of the customs, 
conventions, taboos, ceremonies, social habits, morals, etc., that make up 
moral behavior have to do with small group life. (McDougalI,265-302.) 

When human beings find it necessary to fight, work, live, and play in 
large groups, many difficult adjustments must be made. Native instincts 
towards strangers, submission, routine work, separation from home, post- 

II 



12 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ponement of satisfaction, self-abnegation, all make onerous and distaste- 
ful the conditions imposed by large group "efficiency." Hence conquest, 
slavery, laws, penalties, regimentation, education, property, nationalism, 
and extensions of religion. Evolution takes direction of destroying, or 
denying descendants to, groups that cannot meet conditions of "large 
group" cooperation, control, advance. Even social systems thus compete; 
the poor form of state, of army organization, of mechanism for pro- 
curing justice, education, invention, or devoted leadership fails, and carries 
to extinction those relying on it. "Large group" systems capable of win- 
ning in evolution must also work back towards improving individuals — in 
health, physique, fighting and working qualities, morals, culture; and also 
towards improving small groups, — families, communities, partnerships, 
corporations, schools, cities, states. 

Social groups are of different kinds according to the services they 
render. The family group for reproduction; the partnership, band, guild, 
company, union, corporation, army, for defence, aggression, work; the 
community (village, town, countryside) and commonwealth (city, prov- 
ince, state, nation, empire) for joint occupation of territory, division of 
labor, and political functions ; churches, denominations, for worship ; clubs 
for sociability and culture; schools, cults, societies for education and cul- 
ture ; parties for the promotion of political or other propaganda ; and the 
like. Each child is born into certain groups, grows into others, and "joins" 
still others as he approaches or enters maturity. 

Social groups are often longer lived than any individuals composing 
them ; their members come and go. Groups newly formed usually are 
made up of selected "like-minded" personalities. Established groups have 
processes more or less elaborate by which they select (when they can) and 
shape newcomers to their standards and ideals (social control). 

Rarely are all the members of a group of equal age, native strength, 
experience, training, moral goodness, wealth, health, cooperative power, 
etc. Those having the most of these qualities exert a larger influence on 
the weaker — prestige, leadership, ascendancy, guidance. In any group the 
tendency is always towards specialization of function — leadership and fol- 
lowership, division of labor, regimentation. "Good" membership in any 
group presupposes at least either well-developed instinctive adaptation; 
prolonged habituation, motivated by fear, love, ambition; or intelligent 
perception of advantages of group action. 

Social groupings often present analogies to individuals, as respects 
having youth and age, losing or winning in struggle for existence, in 
having functions well or poorly coordinated, in rendering real service, etc. 

A species or stock carries and passes on its acquisitions as biological 
inheritance (organs, instincts) or social inheritance (knowledge, customs, 
inventions, arts). Animals (consider especially ants, bears, crows, and 
the like) are strong in relatively definite instincts and weak in transmis- 
sion by social inheritance. Man is a unique animal in the magnitude of 
the social inheritance he rolls up through the generations and transmits 
through tools, language, experience — knowledge, arts, customs, laws, 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 1 3 

science. He has probably more general and fewer specific instincts than 
most animals. Man therefore evolves finally a social inheritance that be- 
comes civilization, a very artificial thing, pulling far away from original 
nature — and doing so, becomes superior to (master of) animals, plants. 
He shapes the earth to his needs, domesticates animals, develops knowl- 
edge of the remote, conceives higher ends, develops endless new wants 
and means of satisfying them. He may so over-cultivate himself, over- 
organize his life, as to break down original nature. 

Man, like other organic forms, tends to increase faster than means of 
subsistance. Competition, conflict, extermination result. The coopera- 
tions necessary to strengthen group life are strengthened by natural evo- 
lution and external means, while the qualities of competition necessary to 
subdue or destroy rivals for available goods are similarly developed, nat- 
urally and artificially. But competition steadily forces enlargement of 
competing groups, and hence range and intensity of cooperation, of those 
having like interests in given groups. In a crowded world, struggle for 
food and other needed wealth (giving "economic determinism"), may 
transcend all other struggles ; but under some conditions other forms of 
struggle seem paramount. 

Examine the foregoing postulates in connection with these social groups 
or forms of grouping : 

1. The family: conjugal pair; parents and children; patriarchal family; 
the "family" as large grouping of relatives; "family" of several genera- 
tions; fraternal group. 

2. The household, clan, phratry, tribe, confederation. 

3. The band, clique, gang, company, host, mob, crowd. 

4. The patriarchal (and slave-holding) household, village, shire, muni- 
cipality (town, city). 

5. The city-state, province, county, state, nation, empire, league. 

6. The squad, company, regiment, brigade, army, battleship crew. 

7. The partnership, corporation, syndicate, trust. 

8. The guild, trade union, grange, federation of unions, association. 

9. The party, sect, "ism," school (of thought), cult. 

10. The congregation, church, denomination, monastic order. 

11. The "society," association, guild, school, college. 

12. The fraternity, "secret society,'' knights," "club." 

13. The reception, "party," dance, "fiesta," celebration, commencement, 
court, etc. 

14. Race, caste, "lower class," "ruling class," "poor whites," "east siders," 
"half breeds," "laboring class," "capitalist class," nobility, club women. 

15. Christians, liberals, intelligenzia, suffragists, socialists, scientists, 
agnostics, barbarians, "Huns." 

References: 1: 349-73; 1: 1-51; 51-97; 149-91; 3: 6-55; 81-101; 21: 
29-42; 84-109; 449-551; 22: 153-176; 256-299 ;.23: 325-97; 25: 
1-49; 49-126; 26: 57-90; 28: 17-73. 



14 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

B. Social Groupings 

Social groupings of all sorts are chiefly products of natural evolution- 
ary processes (accidental variations and inceptions, blind experimenta- 
tion, survival and perpetuation of the fit, elimination of the unfit, etc.) ; 
but conscious and purposive action plays an increasing part in the later 
stages (empire builders, colonizers, constitution-makers, reformers, 
church-founders, — Caesar, Mohammed, Brigham Young, Luther, Gompers, 
Cecil Rhodes, Rousseau, Thomas Jeflterson). Some primitive groupings, 
once very strong, but now non-existent or diminished in function, still 
repay study because of light they shed on social psychology and especially 
on retrogressive tendencies in modern life and compensatory contributions 
needed from education. (111. from the patriarchal household, clan, tribe, 
guild, partnership, agricultural village, autocratic state, racial caste, sump- 
tuary and cultural caste, etc.). But of chief importance is searching study 
and evaluation of social groupings, now matured or inceptive, of appar- 
ently vital functioning — monogamous family, city, nation, corporation, 
labor union, cultural association, political party, democratic church, socia- 
bility club, etc. Every current sociological tendency is here in direction 
of supplementing, if not substituting for, blind evolutionary processes 
scientific and purposive consideration, control and reconstruction by pro- 
cesses partly educational and partly legalistic in nature. 

1. Genetic or kinship groupings are the family, household, clan, phratry, 
tribe and, in a sense, the ethnic nationality and the "race." Where com- 
mon ancestry does not exist, adoption is necessary ritual — of captured or 
received wives, men seeking asylum, etc. 

a. The family is still a vital grouping, but it tends to lose its 
inclusive character (close affiliation of uncles, cousins, off- 
spring families) and some of its functions (family worship, 
family education, cooperative production, joint recreation). 
Other functions increase (family support into maturity, spe- 
cialization of mother functions towards child-care and sumptuary 
control). The monogamous family with social strivings for 
marital fidelity, probably originating in cold or dry climes 
where conquest and enslavement are not extensive, tends to 
become generally approved form, largely, perhaps, because of 
increased guarantee of effective rearing of offspring. Society 
uses many means to preserve and improve the family (legisla- 
tion, urgings of religion, elevation of women, inheritance of 
property, conventions of courtship, education in home-making, 
pride of family, ancestor respect, taboos on prostitution). But 
degenerative influences are ceaselessly operative. Some are 
ancient, as promiscuity in sex relations ; instability of man's 
interests, thrift, and earning power; and results of war. Some 
are essentially modern, as mobility of labor; rapidly rising 
standards of living; physical impairment of woman through 
preoccupation in youth with pursuit of culture, social decora- 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 1 5 

tiveness, and, possibly, specialized nervous indoor wage-earning 
vocations ; excessive refinement of standards imposed by living 
in upper economic levels and by romantic ideals of marriage; 
some anti-social effects of diffusion of ideals and knowl- 
edge of means of birth control; and removal of restrictions on 
divorce. 

Each of above types of social action has its advantageous fea- 
tures and effects ; but under some conditions its results on 
family life are obviously disastrous, especially where propor- 
tions involved are large or best stocks are affected. Mobility 
of labor as produced by slavery; diffused (as opposed to mass) 
migration; dispersive effects of life of soldiers, sailors, hunt- 
ers, explorers, miners, builders, railway workers, students ; — 
precludes the normal settled residence best for family solidar- 
ity, encourages marital instability, irregular sex relations, early 
flight of children, and, in higher levels of intelligence, exces- 
sive restriction of progeny and preoccupation with immediate 
satisfactions of adults. 

Rising standards of living lead to postponement or abandon- 
ment of marriage, postponement and excessive restriction of 
progeny, undue strain on income earner and "society position" 
maker, wrong ideals as to what constitutes normal size and 
character of family, excessive preoccupation with material gains 
on behalf of present generation. Remark purposive character 
of family restriction among Catholic clergy, professional men, 
ambitious women, military officers, sons and daughters of the 
prosperous, and demoralizing effects among artists, singers, 
writers and business leaders, many of whom seek the satis- 
factions, but avoid the responsibilities, of mating and marriage. 

Little is scientifically known yet of effects on progeny bear- 
ing and rearing of early forced or induced preoccupation of 
girls with "mental" work, pursuit of decorative ideals ("woman 
as social decoration" for man or "society") and consequent 
restrictions on physical play and denial of physical ("large 
muscle") work. But in view of conditions of ancestral evolu- 
tion it is inherently probable that effects are often sterility, 
abnormally hurtful parturition, defunctionalized nursing organs, 
waning of instinctive interests in wifehood and motherhood. 
Teaching, indoor salesmanship, and "light" factory work in 
which millions of girls now engage in pre-marriage years, 
nerve wearing and indoor, may have similar effects. 

Among certain highly cultivated classes, or those with spe- 
cialized expensive tastes, celibacy is prevalent, due to irabilily to 
find "ideal" mate. This is closely related to rising standards, but 
is also accompaniment of "romantic" appreciations gone to 
seed, of incompatibility, and of willingness to sacrifice future 
of species to present satisfactions. (Celibacy of monastic 



1 6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

orders not to be included here, probably, because of their pre- 
occupation with "other worldly" life.) 

Ideals of families not excessive in size (the irresponsibly 
produced "rabbit warren" type), ideals of self-restraint and 
continence in family relations, increasing intelligence and inde- 
pendent position of women, social approval of divorce for 
proved incompatibility, diffusion of knowledge of means of 
birth control, may all operate, in spite of their beneficent effects, 
as "diseases" of family group life, under conditions suggested 
above. 

"Race suicide" may or may not be disastrous in the "long 
run" to a society whose membership is rapidly increasing and 
standards rising, according as it tends to eliminate the best or 
worst stock. 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

(1) Describe twenty social groups in which you have membership. 
Arrange in respective orders of: (a) their importance to you; (b) their 
appeals to your interests; (c) their claims on your time; (d) their claims 
on your money; (e) their importance to the state now. 

(2) Describe certain social groups of which you have knowledge, the 
net effects of which appear to be harmful to: (a) certain economic 
groups; (b) certain religious groups; (c) certain political parties; (d) 
a local city or state; (e) the nation; (/) an international alliance; (g) 
organized religion in general; (h) current standards of family life. 

(3) Show how the demands of certain groups compete for your ser- 
vice. Show certain persons known to you are failing in obligations to 
highly important groups. 

(4) Do people appear to you now less or more cooperative than for- 
merly? Distinguish several types of cooperation — conjugal, vocational, 
religious, political, sociability, cultural — and try to prove your contention. 
Is the corporation an "advanced" form of cooperation? The city? The 
transatlantic steamer? The Catholic church? A university? A coal mine? 

(5) Show how cooperative production (including distribution and ex- 
change) differs to-day in kind and degree from cooperative utilization. 
Describe various type of cooperative utilization — in home, hotels, clubs, 
schools, and armies. What seem to you defects in processes by which we 
collectively obtain to-day in cities : milk, streets, news, paintings, results 
of research, security from burglary. 

(6) Is it probable that the following have in certain eras been socially 
valuable: slavery; polygamy; idolatry; absolute monarchy; wars of ex- 
termination ; capital punishment ; wife purchase ; infanticide ; communism 
(land) ; communism (consumable goods) ; political government by priest- 
hoods ? 

(7) Historically, has the monogamous family been common in tropical 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES I7 

regions? Why, probably? Why should cold regions put a premium on 
the monogamous family? In what respects is "the family" growing 
"worse" in America? In what respects better? Repeat, specifying fami- 
lies of: farmers; prosperous urban dwellers; recent Mediterranean immi- 
grants; negroes; skilled laborers; professional men. 

(8) Under what circumstances does life celibacy seem socially desirable 
for: (a) men of low economic ability; (b) men of exceptional talents or 
of genius; (c) women of fair ability; (d) women of good earning power. 

References; 1: 112-57; 2: 311-53; 3: 55-81; 4: 61-78; 21: 525-51; 22: 
273-99; 26: 49-63; 27: 571-606; Abbott; Collidge; Dealey; Drysdale; 
Fiske; Goodsell; Lichtenberger ; Putnam; Thomas; Calhoun. 

2. Under conditions of disorganization of the more enduring social 
groups whose members are well "trained," domesticated, or socialized, a 
rariety of sporadic social groupings appear. These are so often patho- 
logical as to deserve careful consideration both as symptons of social dis- 
integration and as forerunners of social explosion. Such groupings tend 
naturally to be formed of those already like-minded by virtue of kinship 
or residential, vocational, or cultural association; but, given sufficient con- 
crete incentive, they may be formed of individuals very heterogeneous in 
the above respects. The solidifying cause is usually to be found in com- 
mon perception of danger, concrete gain, possible revenge, or other more 
or less temporary stimulus, usually strongly emotional. 

a. Youthful gangs and cliques seem to have a definite instmctive 
basis, easily taking elaborate shapings in a favoring environ- 
ment. 

b. Mobs, crowds, and various "isms" doubtless have instinctive 
foundations near the surface, but they also express cumulative 
massing of partly suppressed aspirations, grievances, "new 
growths," and unsuspected decay of old standards. 

c. Tribal and other "outcasts" or "exiles," criminals and rebels, 
the oppressed and disinherited, tend to form bands, adult gangs, 
sometimes "hosts" with whom "organized" society is always at 
war except for short periods of truce. In the presence of 
wealth stored by organized folk, these bands tend usually to 
be parasitic or predatory — ^bound together by perception of 
immediate and concrete objectives. 

d. Clan and tribal formations survive only among very backward 
peoples, but very probably some abnormal psychological mani- 
festations express obscure vestigial survivals of the basic social 
instincts evolved within them. Feuds and vendettas, the suc- 
cess of the "boss" in congested areas, fraternities, secret so- 
cieties, tongs, gangs, loyalties, initiations, and even the rival- 
ries of schools, cults and parties may thus have roots in the 
"blood brotherhoods" of the past. 



1 8 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

e. The real or supposed "ethnic" group or nationality is to-day, 
obviously, one of the greatest barriers to "large nation" solidar- 
ity. The strong tendencies of economic life, of science, of 
sumptuary standards, of arts, and probably of rationalistic re- 
ligion is towards enlargement of areas of general intercourse, 
cooperation and union; whilst race, common ethnic origins, and 
emotional religions seem to interpose barriers. The "small 
national," the oppressed or submerged peoples, seem always 
heavil}' to capitalize their ethnic separateness. Caste often 
owes at least its origins to racial differences. 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

( 1 ) What are some of the "assimilation' problems presented to-day by : 
specified immigrant groups in the United States ; French Canadians in 
Canada ; Dutch in South Africa ; negroes in America ; Irish in United 
Kingdom; ethnic elements in Italy, France, Denmark, Russia. 

(2) Define the meaning of Americanization in general. What are its 
special implications for : political ideals, religious aspirations, culture, 
sociability customs, moral customs, sumptuary standards? 

(3) What parts are played in America by: college fraternities, secret 
societies, tongs (Chinese), vendettas (Italian, Southern mountain whites), 
cults, "bossed" parties, vocational unions. 

References: 1: 157-72; 2: 2ZZ-76; 276-311; 3: 3-55; 316-23; 4: 42-61; 
21: 449-581; 22: 153-69; 256-299; 27: 17-73; Commons; Davis; Vincent; 
Starr; Sumner (2) ; Powers (2). 

3. Common occupancy of contiguous territory by persons among whom 
kinship bonds are weak or not recognized forces beginnings of political 
groupings. If it were not for necessities imposed by war or resulting 
from conquest these associate community groupings — village, shire, mir, 
municipality (town, city, borough), would tend to evolve more extensive 
governmental functions than federate political groupings — city, state, 
county, province, principality, kingdom, state, nation, empire. 

a. Among pastoral peoples and where slave-holding estates de- 
velop, an elemental political organization results that may be 
called the patriarchal or feudal household. 
h. The village community has origins back in clan, tribe, and 
feudal household. It is as ancient, or in some respects more 
ancient, than the family and the generating agency of a large 
part of all that we call political consciousness, public sentiment, 
public opinion. The conditions of the settlement of America 
(Canada and United States) interrupted (perhaps only tem- 
porarily) evolution of village groupings here for agricultural 
peoples ; but in rest of world tillers of soil and pastorals dwell 
in village groups. Village political organization and procedure 
tend to remain in undocumented and often half-articulate 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 1 9 

forms of customs, conventions, traditions, rites, beliefs, social 
observances. Where conquering groups seek to impose uniform 
law on villages, endless complications arise — cf. Rome, British 
India, Russia and feudal Europe generally. 

The village loses vitality in America. "If God made the 
country and man the city, then the devil must have made the 
small town." Political functions go to county, state, or nation. 
Economic specialization by regions, and ease of transportation 
destroy the economic, and to some extent the cultural and social, 
autonomy and social "completeness" of the village. 

America seems not yet to have evolved, except in rare instances, 
a genuine rural community of peoples sufficiently in touch with 
each other to be called "real associates," to exhibit the social 
consciousness necessary to a considerable degree of political 
autonomy. But the need for such is keenly felt by rural lead- 
ers and students. Political functions of rural areas are now 
largely exercised by federate groupings — perhaps inevitably, as 
intelligence of voters, ease of communication, and science of 
administration grow. Economic, recreative, cultural and even 
religious functions tend towards commercial specialization on 
basis of urban standards. 

Industry and commerce give rise to the city which, everywhere, 
has had its chief development during last century, although 
many political foundations were laid when mediaeval cities 
fought to independence of feudal control. Now cities are very 
vital theatres of political evolution, where customs give way to 
documented ordinances, laws, and charters, where representa- 
tive and full paid specialist governments are indispensable, 
where common ownership of utilities increases, and enduring 
"party" groups are formed. The area of the city necessitates 
contiguity of residence; but its population numbers preclude 
"associate" acquaintance; while its community of interests neces- 
sitates federate cooperation similar to that of the nation. 
European and American cities are seething laboratories of 
conscious invention of political forms and functions. 

The city constitutes a highly artificial environment for in- 
dividuals and for older types of small groups. The associate 
community as a political organization almost disappears — 
strong efforts are being made to recreate it. Productive func- 
tions of the household group become much reduced. Facilities 
for recreation and culture become commercialized. In earlier 
stages urbanization created conditions that multiplied vice, 
crime, vagabondage, mob control and disease; but corrective 
agencies have rapidly developed until, for many cities, it can 
safely be claimed that they are more orderly, uniformly indus- 
trious, and healthy than countryside or village. Democracy 



20 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

has its roots in family and village life, but its branching into 
representative government, freeman suffrage, and equal rights 
to community possessions has been produced in cities — first in 
those that waged war against feudalism. Over the world cities 
now lure the more energetic, the mobile, the gregarious. They 
impose severe strains upon the older social virtues, and fiercely 
demand new types. 

e. The state, formed first by necessities of defence on a large 
scale, by superposition of conquerors on conquered tillers of the 
soil and craftsmen, and later by needs of economic aggrandize- 
ment, conservation, and administration of justice, seems in- 
evitably the resultant product of constructive forces — of ad- 
vances in knowledge, communication, cooperation, inventions, 
and multiplication of peoples, working against the destructive 
forces of ethnic, economic and other forms of conflict, and the 
perennially dissolving tendencies inherent in local and "small 
group" organization. The state has had many forms, of which 
the city-state — Athens, Rome, Carthage, — the various forms 
produced under feudalism, and the kingdom are interesting his- 
torical examples ; the constitutional monarchy, the republic, and 
the empire are the forms now highly dynamic; whilst either the 
reservation of partial sovereignty by smaller units purposefully 
and voluntarily federating (the United States, the former Ger- 
man and Austrian Empires) or the struggle of conquered or 
colonially developed units for increase of autonomy, gives us 
the very vital "states" of the United States, dominions, prov- 
inces, "submerged nations," seceding states (here consider 
Canada, Ireland, South Carolina — nullification, — Zionism, the 
Phillipines, Korea, Egypt, India, Poland, Cuba, etc.) 

Many of the most complex of modern problems of economic 
expansion, increase of population, and insurance of security 
center in the relationships of nationalistic groups. National 
groups made homogeneous in ideal or composition, by common 
speech, religion, ethnic qualities or economic needs acquire great 
dynamic force, easily turn to aggressive expansion or (if under 
bondage) struggle for independence. If dissimilarities, real or 
imagined, between neighboring national groupings are marked, 
destructive conflict is always imminent. A nation of limited 
and well developed territory which combines a rapidly increas- 
ing population with rising standards of culture and living de- 
velops literally, socially explosive forces (German, Japan). 
Small, and especially meagrely developed, nationalities are in- 
tensely individualistic, like primitive family and clan groups, 
hence engage constantly in destructive conflict — Balkans, Cen- 
tral America, India (formerly), perhaps the new European 
nations. Enforced union under imperial direction often their 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 21 

fate, perhaps no other course open (cf. Germany, Italy, Amer- 
ica's Civil War, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, India, mediaeval 
kingdoms). 

The functions of state government were originally primarily 
defence, then administration of justice. Follows regulation of 
commerce (coinage, tariffs, weights and measures, quelling of 
piracy, establishment of light houses), conduct of education, 
regulation of corporate enterprise, protection of worship (at 
times), promotion of colonization. Some think nations now 
stand at the threshold of state socialism — state conduct of eco- 
nomic enterprises, as transportation, distance communication, 
irrigation, marketing, mining, large scale production. 

The forms of control for the state, ranging from dictator- 
ships, through hereditary aristocracies, to constitutional mon- 
archies and representative republics, give rise to endless prob- 
lems of social control, assimilation, democracy. Sometimes 
religion, the press, and the state; and now universally the edu- 
cation of youth — are utilized as means of promoting the stabil- 
ity and experimenting with the improvement of the state. 
Parties form and reform about projected policies of govern- 
ment. Suffrage must be interpreted primarily as a means of 
collectively selecting and employing agents who shall give ex- 
pression and application to aspirations of the rank and file. In 
organization as well as function the state is still endlessly ex- 
perimental. 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

(i) Describe social effects of pastoral life as to-day found in Montana, 
Northern Mexico, Natal, Siberia. What are nearest approximations to 
patriarchal organization found now? 

(2) Contrast rural village life in Eurasia and recently settled North 
America. In states now devoted chief!}'- to agriculture, what are the 
economic and other functions of the village or small town ? Show how : 
our government land system ; dependence of frontier settlers on live stock ; 
and weakness of Indians made founding of farm villages needless or dif- 
ficult. What were exceptions in New England? 

(3) What is "the rural problem" in the United States? Resolve it into 
a variety of particular problems, economic, religious, governmental, and 
convivial. 

(4) What are the assumed advantages of "city life" to: the individual 
man; the individual woman (discuss according to several grades of native 
ability, and from standpoint of congeniality of surroundings, health, eco- 
nomic, possibilities, etc.); the "family group"; culture; wealth; commun- 
ity cooperation? 

(5) Are cities or city people more "progressive" than country dwellers? 
Examine at various economic levels, intelligence levels, etc. 



22 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(6) What was distribution of governmental functions and responsibili- 
ties, and what was "sovereignty" among the American colonies in 1785? 
What was situation in 1830? 1870? 1920? What are now "debatable 
grounds" in the United States as between state and nation? What are 
now political functions of states that many would prefer to seek exer- 
cised by national government? 

(7) What were some prominent "nationalistic" movements of former 
years? What have been some recently developed demands for "self- 
determination"? Illustrate from: the "making" of the German Empire, 
United Italy, the South African Union; and from Poland, Jugo-Slavakia. 
Ireland, Ukrania, Armenia. 

References: 1: 157-91; 379-88; 2:331-53; 3: 81-96; 147-68; 4: 137- 
159; 21: 29-74; 22: 299-334; 420-23; 23: 224-335; 718-728; 25: 350-95; 
26: 243-56; 27: 451-86; Cooke; Howe; Huntington (1); Ivrnngott; Lee 
(1) : Mahan; Meeklin; Poole; Powers (3); Roosevelt; Ross (3); 
Stone; Strong; Toynbee ; Dealey; Oppenheimer. 

4. Self-preservation imposes upon man the necessity of protecting him- 
self from predatory animals, men, and weather, and of working (and 
fighting) for means of subsistence. As in the case of many animals, 
these necessities are early met by cooperation. Primitively, the horde, 
village, and family are economic unions no less than sociability, religious 
and cultural — in fact the economic need may be the most basic, the others 
ministering to it. The patriarchal household organizes production; the 
tribe organizes defensive and aggressive fighting. Advanced stages of 
conquest give elaborate organizations of slave labor; while the craft, 
religious, military, artistic and trading guilds, incipient in barbarism, de- 
velop complex and remarkably enduring forms. 

a. The guild involves less of cooperative production than it does 
of standards and coordination of interests of allied workers 
in a given field. At its best it has done wonderful things 
through thousands of years in advancing and perpetuating stand- 
ards of craftsmanship, providing vocational education, organ- 
izing markets, etc. At its worst it has become cruelly monopo- 
listic, secretive, oppressive, parasitic and addicted to anti-social 
forms of consumption. Mediaeval medicine, law, commerce, 
education, and religion were promoted under guild forms hardly 
less than handicraft production; while in many respects 
fundamental units of military organization were guild-like in 
character. 

h. Informal partnerships are very old, and their extensive develop- 
ments a few centuries ago sometimes arose from needs of co- 
operative labor in production and sometimes from desire to 
fool capital. 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 23 

c. The corporation (or limited joint stock company), a wonder- 

ful modern growth, involves primarily cooperative use of 
capital in production, but becomes profitable also largely by 
virtue of the specialized service — from expert leadership down — 
which it makes possible. Its successful operation requires a 
maximum of documented regulations, legalistic foundations, etc. 
The large corporation easily tends towards monopolistic and 
oppressive practices. 

d. Labor unions, on a craft or industrial basis, resemble the guild 
in that their primary purpose is not cooperation in production, 
but regulation of the conditions under which workers with 
common interests may organize and promote these. They differ 
from guilds in the fact that their members usually do not con- 
tribute capital or direction to production (but note current as- 
piration for "industrial democracy"). At their best they raise 
standards, diminish destructive competition, give an intense 
kind of social education. At their worst they become intensely 
monopolistic and obstructive of real production. 

e. Modern conditions of economic production evolve many varie- 

ties of voluntary association and federation — granges, syndicates, 
trusts, leagues, cartels, exchanges, marketing associations, techni- 
cal societies, etc. From time to time attempts are also made by 
consumers to organize buying and standardizing functions on 
some cooperative basis, cf. "Rochdale movement," "Consumers 
League," etc.). But these are still experimental as large social 
tendencies. 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

1. What is meant by "economic determinism?" What is the "Mal- 
thusian Law?" Is is probable that the warlike instincts of mankind have 
originated in struggles for economic resources? What have been other 
possible origins of wars? 

2. What have been contributions to human welfare from discovery and 
extended use of: fire; domestication of animals; domestication of plants; 
iron working; steam powder; cold storage; money capital? 

3. Why are the large commercial nations to-day competing for control 
of tropical lands? 

4. Why is the aim of much current legislation to preserve conditions of 
"free competition" in business? 

5. What are the "aims" of trade unions as regards their individual 
members? Why has government approved the formation of unions of 
employees in large industries? 

6. What are possibilities of "cooperative utilization" beyond those now 
found? 



24 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

References: 1:191-220; 435-57; 2:97-149; 3:89-101; 4:97-137; 21:74-109; 
22:79-116; 207-42; 25:395-428; 26:293-305; 27:486-523; Carlton; Carrer; 
Devine ; Ely ; Fetter ; Ghent ; Huntington (2) ; Hunter ; Lauch ; Powers ; 
Price; Rogers; Smith; Sumner (1); Tead; Toynbee; Willis. 

5. The religious instincts (to project conceptions of invisible person- 
alities into the "dark," the "void," the beyond; to impute to them benefi- 
cent and maleficent intentions and powers; and to fear, love, and strive 
to propitiate and coopt the beings thus conceived) are essentially social 
as respects unseen personalities ; they also seem to require and produce 
various social groupings of the religious. 

a. The "Congregations" are elemental church bands for mutual 
stimulus and organization of worship. Intense sociability, 
"Christian fellowship," cultural association, sumptuary regu- 
lation, and moral control seem to attend naturally, while strong 
tion, and moral control seem to attend naturally, while strong 
tendencies toward specialization of functions (leadership in 
ritual, preaching, administration) tend generally to appear. 
Federation produces sects, denominations, historic "churches," 
and often tendency is towards centralized control, theocracy, 
crystallization of ceremonials, creeds, and moral dogmas. Be- 
liefs in distinctive spiritual beings and in future life powerful- 
ly influence imaginations and can readily be used as means of 
shaping and controlling all kinds of behavior; hence religion 
becomes at certain stages, a socializing agency no less potent 
than family, community, or vocation. But science diminishes 
anthropomorphism in religion and relaxes its specific, and es- 
pecially its traditional, controls. 

b. Differences of creed and objectives becoming tied up with other 
differences — ethnic, cultural, nationalistic, even economic — giye 
sanguinary fierceness to competitions and wars, especially when 
mediaevalism was able to beget profound and concrete faiths. 
Political organization and religious organization long warred 
for supremacy, with victory for the former, as the scientific 
"spirit" and aspirations for democracy prevailed. 

c. Specialized religious groupings carry to highly developed forms 

certain qualities and aspirations, often sporadic in all societies, 
celibacy, poverty, asceticism, devotion, "good works." At 
certain stages each of these probably effects valuable contribu- 
tions for society as agencies accepting specialized functions — 
monastic orders, religious "knights" (of the post-crusade 
period) . 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

1. Trace stages in evolution of a modern "church" or faith, e.g., Mor- 
monism, Unitarianism, Christian Science. 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 25 

2. Diagnose difficulties produced when ethnic, political and religious 
differences merge in opposing groups — Armenians vs. Turks, Irish vs. 
English, etc. 

3. Show how large and persistent religious groupings affect social 
control. 

References : 1 :239-71 ; 2 :353-72 ; 3 :129-41 ; 4 :ll5-37 ; 21 :632-52 ; 22 :239- 
54; 23:482-501; 686-705; 25:196-257; 27:364-99; Coe, Matthews, Tyler, 
Wallas. 

6. A custom-based social order (barbarian and "mediaeval" civilized) 
refuses willingly to tolerate far-reaching or organized differences of as- 
piration, thought or action, hence gives scant place for parties, sects, 
cults, "schools," associations for propaganda, or "issues" generally; but 
widespread movements for democracy and freedom of thinking evoke and, 
almost necessarily, tolerate these social groupings in endless variety. Many 
are shortHved, some protean. Nearly all have a few primary objectives, 
aim at propaganda, and seek purposive groupings of those originally, or 
by conversion, "like minded." These organizations, more often fluid than 
crystallized, serve as ferments for new ideas, as screens for old, and the 
incessant emulations and minor partisanships they create perhaps move 
toward purposive control of evolution (telic progress). But they now 
obviously involve marked dissipations of social energy and cause stimula- 
tion of small no less than large, malevolent no less then benevolent, 
spirits. But like the agitation of waters, they perhaps serve well to pre- 
vent corruption, to promote various kinds of wholesomeness. 

a. Political parties are the natural production of republicanism, 
political freedom, experiments in combining democracy and 
effective political organization. Numberless varieties of pur- 
posive social groupings, collective (state) control of partisan ex- 
cesses ("politics"), civic education (publicity, propaganda), in- 
dividual ascendancy, and social control can profitably be studied 
in political parties, which are, in western nations, among the 
most dynamic of contemporary groupings. 

b. As religious, economic, cultural, and other groups expand from 
an associate to a federate comprehensiveness, "parties" are 
often formed about differences of policy or practice. These 
may produce rifts (sometimes in associate, more commonly 
in federate, groups) from which come sects, denominations, 
etc. 

c. Certain factors or cohesives in the social order of a given 
society are looked upon as essential — patriotism, religious ortho- 
doxy, republicanism, private property, the monogamous family, 
racial purity. Parties, cults, or "isms" formed to oppose these 
become objects of intense hostility, and especially from the 
chief beneficiaries and convinced supporters of the approved 
order. Under these conditions strong tendencies towards per- 



26 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

secution, intolerance, denial of freedom of speech, press and 
assemblage, are observed even in societies strongly cherishing 
freedom of conscience and thought as general principles. In 
these struggles about fundamental social values may be studied 
profitably elemental conflicts, suppressions and controls. 

PROBLEMS FOR STUDY 

1. What have been, historically, the usual aims of various forms of 
persecution? Analyze various tj^pes — ethnic, religious, political, economic, 
caste, sumptuary, sex, age. Distinguish between persecution that seeks to 
eliminate the opposed persons, and that which seeks to exploit (or "use") 
them. 

2. Describe the essentials of tolerance, fair play, "America first," found 
in the American political party system, 

3. Why do Americans strive to prevent mixing of religion and politics 
in party systems? 

4. Describe the varied and numerous "voluntary" groupings found in a 
city of your acquaintance to promote "worthy ends." 

5. Discuss current social tendencies as to freedom of discussion and 
party action and the reverses. 

References: 1:220-39; 283-316; 399-414; 3:101-147; 168-192; 159-175; 
21:357-431; 22:137-53; 386-400; 23:482-524; 25:325-76; 27:451-86. 

Bagehot; Carver; Eliot; Hadley; Kropotkin; Lee; Riis (1); Ross (5) ; 
Stone ; Veblen ; Vincent. 

7. The pursuit of "social relaxation," social diversion, amusement, and 
conviviality (here comprehensively called "sociability") gives rise to a 
large number of forms of social grouping, some of which are very per- 
sistent. These usually are not highly organized from within, but when 
elaborate organization seems needed, it is undertaken by specialized 
agencies on a commercial basis — cf. the saloon, the theatre, music hall, 
gambling house, the moving pictures (but note, on the other hand, men's 
clubs). The quests of "sociability" readily leads to dissipation of energies 
and wealth, to sex vice and personal conflict, hence conservative individuals 
and groups wage war on them. Youth, unemployed women, unstable 
elders, persons aesthetically sensitive, seem especially to crave large 
measure of the various forms of sociability and hence draw down on 
themselves the maledictions of those preoccupied with the serious con- 
structive activities of life. When wealth becomes plenty and security 
seems assured (or at the opposite extreme, unattainable) the convivial 
assume ascendancy (cf. many periods in history) and are fought as 
wastrels. Sound social valuations are here very obscure. Many degener- 
ative tendencies in society unquestionably are accompanied by dispropor- 
tionate addiction to sociabilities of hurtful kind. 



SOCIAL STRUCTURES 27 

PROBLEMS yOR STUDY 

1. Describe agencies of "commercialized amusement" in a modern city. 

2. Describe close connections of vice with sociability agencies. 

3. What is "Epicurean philosophy?" "Stoic philosophy?" 

4. Review efforts to provide wholesome diversion in American canton- 
ments. 

References: 1:329-49; 3:101-117; 4:78-97; 22:113-130; 377-88; 25:257- 
325; 27:263-306. 



CHAPTER III 

SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 

A. Social Efficiency 

Every adult member of society, under the pressures o£ felt needs, in- 
stincts, and the influences exerted by his fellows, strives toward self- 
realization and the conservation and improvement of the conditions affect- 
ing him. Due to similar pressures he strives to affect others — to help or 
to hinder, to repel, or to coopt, to love or to hate them. 

Social evolution enlarges group areas of collective action (latitudinal 
social expansion) and the accumulated social inheritance (longitudinal or 
chronological social expansion). Hence individual strivings for efficiency 
merge increasingly into collective strivings on the part of social groups. 
Aspirations, policies, and programs of groups for social efficiency thus 
appear. 

At first these are largely by-products of unreflecting experience, some- 
times made luminous and striking by the interpretative powers of genius, 
and incorporated into customs, traditions, codes. But increasingly they 
are characterized by collective consciousness, wider purposiveness, scien- 
tific evaluation. Blind progress gives place to purposive progress (see 
Ward's telic progress) in "spots." ("The twentieth century has appeared in 
only a few places as yet.") 

Social efliciencyl is now pursued along lines — sometimes by letting in- 
dividuals or voluntary groups pursue their own ends, with society in some 
collective ways holding them to the "rules of the game," as in the case of 
economic production, family rearing, religious observance, invention, and 
the reorganization of customs ; and sometimes by "public" collective action, 
as in defence, government, education, and sanitation. To the promotion of 
social eft'iciency almost all kinds of knowledge can be made to minister. 
In so far as sociology, the most inclusive of the social sciences, and the 
most purposively "social" of all the sciences, extends our vision of what 
constitutes true "social efficiency" or mastery of practicable working 
objectives towards it, then do the "applicants" of such sociological knowl- 
edge become important in pursuit of social efficiency. Education, espec- 
ially of the young, is one of the most effective means of making such 
knowledge socially "functional." 

(1) The term "social efficiency" will be here used to include all kinds of desirable 
and effective social activities. An efficient individual, in any adequate meaning of 
the term, is effective in economic pursuits, in conserving and improving his health, in 
rearing a family, in enriching his own personality, in co-operating with his fellows, 
and in serving his maker. In similar broad sense, "social efficiency" results from 
collective pursuit of all desirable ends — economic, religious, civic, educational, cultural, 
physical, etc. The term "social economy" has sometimes been interpreted to have the 
same scope, but it has obvious limitations. The term "applied sociology" has also been 
urged, but it is open to the objection stated in first chapter to all "applied" subjects. 
"Social well-being^' can advantageously be taken as a colloquial synonym. 

28 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 29 

Sociology gives as yet no adequate analyses of the components of "social 
efficiency." The "values" that men, individually or collectively, strive 
after may be helpfully considered under such categories as : security, 
health, property (wealth), family, righteousness, companionship (includ- 
ing communion with beneficent deities), knowledge, beauty. A cross 
section of any dynamic society to-day shows that among the activities 
ministering to social efficiency, the following have obviously important 
connections with education: defence (war), social control (including 
maintenance of order, and good citizenship), economic production, exten- 
sion of knowledge, promotion of health and beauty, conservation and 
elevation of family life and racial heredity, upholding of religion, advance- 
ment of democracy, etc. 

The problems of social efficiency (and hence in large part of education) 
arise in part from present ignorance of how to realize aspirations sugges- 
ted by the above categories ; but in part they arise also from our present 
inability to find correct balances (optimum resultants) among several 
more or less conflicting values. Endless limitations, innate and environ- 
mental, affect man — ^the life span, the physical powers, and the educability 
of the individual; as well as the habitable surface, the controllable forces, 
the accessible resources of earth. Is it "best" that a given portion of 
earth's surface should be occupied by many people with a low standard 
of living; that the "individual" should sacrifice happiness heavily for the 
present and future good of the "large" group ; that a man should amass 
wealth for himself and his even at some sacrifice of health ; that "national 
honor" should be conserved even at great sacrifice of life; that much of 
the time and energy of the average individual should be devoted to the 
pursuit of that knowledge, beauty, and communion with God which 
yield no "visibly practical" returns? It is essential that that study of 
social efficiency which is designed to define objectives for education should 
carry analysis of these problems as far as practicable. 

Obviously only partial analyses of major groups of factors making for 
social efficiency can yet be achieved. For some purposes these factors 
seem to suggest final ends of social effort — in the domains of religion, 
security, pure knowledge, pure beauty, health, and heredity; in other cases, 
they are commonly accepted as means to other ends — in the domains of 
economic production, social control, and education. But, more funda- 
mentally, the sociologist regards even religion, security, health, knowledge, 
and beauty as being more often means than ends, both of unconscious 
and of conscious social evolution. Provisionally, therefore, analysis may 
undertake to set forth (1) certain problems of remote goals; then to 
treat, in possible order of appearance as conscious goals of collective 
action, such major factors as : (2) defence (against competing human 
groups) ; (3) social control (within cooperating groups) ; (4) economic 
production (5) religion (6) pursuit of knowledge; (7) pursuit of beauty 
(8) pursuit of health (9) improvements of stock; and (10) individual 
self-realization (democracy) ; and finally, as a major means, (11) edu- 
cation. 



30 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

References : 1 :271-316 ; 349-79 ; 425-35. 

Bagehot, Crain, Davenport (1), Devine, Gulick, King, Roosevelt, Salee- 
by. Wallace (1), Ward (2). 

B. Goals of Social Efficiency 

Sociology knows little as yet of objectives of social efficiency beyond 
those to be derived by projecting forward evolutionary tendencies already 
established and recognized. Like other organic species man seeks to 
multiply, to possess the earth, to crowd out competing forms of life 
(weeds, wolves, flies, bacteria, even other humans), and so to adapt him- 
self to different environments as to render further multiplication possible. 
He strives for security, health, happiness. He far transcends all animals 
in building, transmitting, and using his "social inheritance" and in project- 
ing goals towards which he strives. Hence the accumulation of knowledge, 
the production of beauty, and preparation for the immortal life beyond, 
have become engrossing social pursuits. The pursuit of remoter goals 
has in many cases become closely incorporated in the instinctive life 
(multiplication, conquest, property possession) of all ; or it results from 
that variability in human offspring by which exceptional individuals (in- 
ventors, pioneers, artists, devotees, leaders) appear; or it may arise from 
social cr>^stallizations about obscure instincts (religious movements, mi- 
grations). Among these remoter objectives of social evolution which well 
repay philosophical analysis are these: (1) Where does nature, and where 
should man, find optimum resultant between quality and quantity of 
human life? (2) Where does nature and where should man find optimum 
resultants as between the individual and the group? (3) What are prob- 
abilities that existence after death is of such character as greatly to re- 
pay conscious preparation therefor in this life? 

1. The natural tendency of human life is to multiply in geometric ratios. 
But hunger, disease and war act as positive checks. Nearly half the 
human race now live "under the monsoon." The Sahara Desert, Labra- 
dor, Nevada, the Andes, support very few men. Where population 
grows dense, disease in the past has flourished. Nature has endowed man 
with strong instincts of conquest as towards other species ; but, what is less 
common in the animal world, with strong instincts to conquer from his 
fellows also. But organization and invention have helped men to multiply. 
Organization eliminates war as between local small groups, makes ac- 
cumulation of property possible, and helps the stemming of disease. 
Domestication of rice and buffalo make the "teeming Orient" possible. 
Western European civilization has grown on wheat, cattle, iron, and ships. 
Maize and the bow and arrow made settled life possible to aboriginal 
America. Germany, England, Massachusetts, Japan develop dense popu- 
lations around manufacture and export. 

Recently have appeared voluntary checks on population. In western 
nations standards of living now war on population increase — giving 
celibacy, postponed marriage, infertility, birth, control, "race suicide." 
Perhaps polygamy insures larger numbers, but monogamy superior quality, 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 3I 

of offspring. Wealth and its attendant exaltation of pleasure as an end 
seem to extend prostitution, infertility, subnormal families. Intensifica- 
tion of parental interest, thrift, and forethoughtfulness generally, favor 
small families among superior stocks or social levels. Traditional religion 
strongly resents voluntary curtailment of family, except for religious ends. 
Quite probably, out of numberless conflicting and confused tendencies, 
are even now being evolved foundations of conscious policies soon to be 
generally accepted. 

2. Membership in, and sharing responsibilities of, group life usually 
both helps and hinders the individual. The hindering often seems to 
touch most those values that are immediate and insistent to him ; and the 
helping, the more remote and, perhaps, less interesting, values. Individual- 
istic and "small group" instincts are always somewhat at war with social 
(or large group) requirements. The family, the community, the union, 
the church, and the state (especially when under pressure for unity in 
defensive action) tend to restrict the individual to industry, education, 
routine, conformity, sacrifice. They deprive him freedom, play, gang 
associations, self-aggrandizement. All existing social adjustments exhibit 
endless compromises here — these being often obviously provisional and 
opportunist. 

The ideals of liberty, democracy, social efficiency, and Christianity in- 
cessantly force education (as well as government, industry, worship) to 
try to discover fundamental laws or principles here. The social meta- 
physics of recent centuries seeks refuge in formulas, panaceas, and vibrates 
from pole to pole of faiths. But new factors constantly supervene. Other 
things remaining equal, would doubling the population of the United 
States increase or diminish the "large group control" which seems, and 
often does, cramp the individual? 

Would great improvements in social education enable the individual 
gracefully and normally to accept needed restraints and to find satisfac- 
tions in lines of "socialized" freedom left open? Is a large measure of 
individual freedom practicable if organization for maximum economic 
production (or defensive war) becomes necessary? 

Of the same kind are problems of small (and relatively "natural") 
groups as against large (and relatively artificial — "art made") groups. 
Enlarging national areas seems to make for peace, acculturation, economic 
development. It suppresses "small nations," local independence, etc. 
Should South Carolina be permitted to become a "small nation"? South 
Ireland? Scotland? Hawaii? Should India, Egypt, Canada, Korea be- 
come completely sovereign? Could they use such sovereignty advantage- 
ously to themselves or others? 

3. Peoples and eras vary greatly as to their definiteness of beliefs and 
conceptions of "life beyond." Beliefs in personal immortality figured 
only slightly in Old Testament theology, but very extensively in Christi- 
anity. India thinks much in terms of continued life; China apparently 
but little. For long periods Europe made mundane life largely apprentice- 



32 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ship for the career after death, a social situation which profoundly affected 
education. Modern "intellectual" man, enlightened by science, discards 
anthropomorphic deities and holds less to a strictly personal immortality; 
but he evolves serener beliefs in great causative agencies and in the es- 
sential wisdom, economy and purposiveness of the "order of the universe" 
— attitudes which may easily be made to mean much to education for the 
"higher" social efficiency. 

References: 1:541-65; 414-25; 2:372-97; 3:268-97; 4:21-42; 21:3-29, 
22:416-23; 23:705-29; 25:417-43; 26:94-117; 27:364-99. 

(References at end of chapters 14, 15, and 18, Dewey and Tafts, Ethics), 
Munsterberg, Cooley (2), Small, Wallace (2). 

C. Defence and Aggression (War) 

Far back in social evolution men learned to contend destructively with 
others for territory, wealth and women. Family and other groupings 
contended in collective capacities and war imposed more stringent needs 
for tools and organization than did conflicts with animals or the forces 
of nature. Defence against human foes becomes the first essential in 
collective promotion of security, and easily leads to organized aggression. 
War thus becomes a potent, if not the most potent, agency of natural 
selection (sometimes eugenic, sometimes dj^sgenic, by modern standards 
of social values) and of that social selection which produces effective 
tools, organized experience, and closely cooperative groups. Internal 
social control, religion, economic and health efficiency, aesthetic appeal, 
science, and education become the indispensable means to survival. His- 
tory can vision along roads of social evolution an endless wreck of stocks 
and of social systems which were burned up rather than refined in cru- 
cibles of war. Some important considerations are: 

1. Primitively war seems usually to result in total destruction of op- 
ponents ; next children and women are saved and incorporated into con- 
queror's group; then men also are saved for slavery; and finally the 
conquered are left in secure pursuit of their own economic activities, but 
under conditions designed to give the conquerors direct or indirect bene- 
fits. A different stage is sometimes discernible in which the conquerors 
are gradually assimilated by the conquered. 

Some believe that many of the institutions characteristic of civilization 
originated in the necessities of that conquest which aimed to keep the 
subjugated highly productive, e. g., governmental administration of justice, 
property in land, capital, organized education (of rulers), systematized 
taxation, and corporate promotion of art, science, the arts, elaborate cere- 
monial, etc. 

2. Nations result from the organized consolidations of social groups 
under pressure of war. Progress seems to give larger national units and 
retrogression disintegrates — but whether for good or ill is still a problem. 

3. Often war is so destructive that net good comes to none engaged. 
Perception of this fact, together with experience obtained in administer- 



SOaAL FUNCTIONINGS 33 

ing large nations, sometimes of very heterogeneous social elements, gives 
rise to aspirations for total cessation of war, for international cooperation 
in administration of justice, etc. It is probable, too, that war on scales 
made possible by modern conditions is not eugenic as to stock or advan- 
tageously selective as to social inheritance. But to maintain effective "pre- 
paredness for war" may give motives for internal harmony, economic ef- 
ficiency, maintainance of physical well-being, and for genuine education 
obtainable for the present in no other way. 

References: 1:283-316; 388-93; 499-513; 3:316-23; 22:299-322; 23:183- 
213; 357-97; 25:376-411; 27:73-913. 

David, Giddings, Jastrow, Keller, Maine, Marshall, Oppenheimer, 
Powers (2), Ross, Todd, Wood. 

D. Social Control 

Social groups have longer life than individual members composing them. 
Man is only partially fitted for group life by his instincts ; and for the 
highly artificial groups produced by civilization, his instincts are largely 
inadequate. Hence social control — the complex of processes by which 
groups adjust new members, and by which large groups adapt and hold 
small groups to courses of action believed to be for the general good. 

The central difficulty in social control arises from conflict of individual 
(or small group) felt interests with larger social needs. The individual 
feels the need of freedom (from constraint, routine, steady work), proper- 
ty, sex, destruction of opponents. His small groups want to take, but 
not to give, to be secure, self-centered, aggrandizing. Within limits set 
by the needs of others these instincts and easily formed social valuations 
are normal and socially sound. Their operation may be observed in any 
family, village, school excursion or crew. 

Social control is achieved mainly through shaping the aspirations, knowl- 
edge, habits, appreciations and ideals of the young (during that "pro- 
longed infancy" when youth is plastic to impressions produced by elders, 
imitative of example and of approval of superiors) ; and by external 
restrictions and directions imposed on imperfectly socialized adults — 
taboos, conventions, customs, rules, regulations, laws, constitutions. The 
"small group" and individualistic virtues can best be inclusively desig- 
nated as "mores," or morals; the political small group virtues, "justice"; 
the ''state group" virtues, citizenship ; and the "deity group" virtues 
(i. e., man's relationship to deity), piety, holiness, or religiousness. 

The specific objectives of social control are as numerous as social 
groups, and the standards of social efficiency held on behalf of them. 
The individual is subject to conflicting "pulls": (a) What shall he give 
(of submission, service) to others that will leave him an optimum measure 
of development, personality, individuality? (h) How shall he apportion 
his submission and service among various groups — family, community, 
union, church, state, etc. — so as best to serve all? {c) How shall he act 
when "small group," and "large group," interests conflict? So arise end- 



34 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

less problems of "duty," or "right and wrong," of ethical or social stand- 
ards. 

The experience of the race or of divisions thereof, has long given quali- 
tative definition to scores of virtues — filial, parental, marital, fraternal, 
communal, martial, vocational, sumptuary, civic, patriotic, religious, altru- 
istic. (These may profitably be investigated by organizing the experience 
of each one of us around popularly approved ideals of virtuous and vicious 
conduct for various kinds of social membership, e. g., the "bad son" is — ■; 
the "good son" is — . Similarly list numerous virtues (and their opposites 
characteristic of the "bad" type) of the good: father, mother, husband, 
wife, brother, uncle, fellow workman, friend, employer, employee, soldier, 
worshipper, voter, ruler, elected official, fellow passenger, scholar, teacher, 
man as consumer, man as reader, man as citizen of a municipality, man as 
citizen affecting action towards other peoples, talented man as altruistic 
giver of gratuitous service to others. 

But the ordinary moral categories are unsatisfactory (for the study of 
true social control, and for education) because: they are not concretely 
related to definite social groups; they take no account of the variabilities 
(as to educability, conflicting tendencies, social influence) of different in- 
dividuals; and they are lacking in quantitative definition. Hence social 
(moral, civic, religious) education is to-day the theater of endless writing 
and discussion that is Utopian, aspirational (only), unproductive. Primi- 
tive and mediaeval education for social control suffered less from this be- 
cause of the ultimate definiteness of its taboos, dogmas, mandates, as rest- 
ing on authority; but we now seek ends of social control concurrently 
with striving for freedom of thought and democracy. The task still re- 
mains for sociology (as applied in social efficiency) to provide properly 
balanced schemes of objectives for social control. 

The specific methods of providing for social control are many: 

a. Instincts of fairly definite character motivate and direct certain 

forms — love of mother for child, love of man and woman, fra- 
ternal affection, gang and clique membership, sociability, pity, 
sympathy. 

b. Instincts of an inclusive character are given specific direction 
by elders and superiors, for sake of motivation; fear (of blame, 
corporal punishment, fire of Sheol, jail, loss of property, loss 
of friends, etc.) ; love (of approval of superiors, of success in 
competition, of acquisition of property, of noteworthy achieve- 
ment, etc.) ; submissiveness to authority (of parents, elders, 
priests, institutions, tradition) which sways especially apprecia- 
tions and ideals (and crystallizes into habits, attitudes, fixed 
valuations; imitativeness, curiosity, workmanship, aggressive- 
ness, etc. 

c. As experience defines forms of approved or disapproved social 
conduct, taboos, commandments, laws, conventions are given 
shape, often highly specific. "Thou shall not steal"; the dance 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 35 

must have a chaperon; usury is unlawful; no law shall be 
passed abridging freedom of speech. 

d. Ceremonial is a valuable means among the ignorant or those 
easily accessible to emotional stirrings. Ceremonial garments, 
rituals, pageants, imposing buildings are examples. (Trace 
useful and, possibly, useless survivals in modern life.) 

e. Art that strongly stirs appreciations (musical, visual, literary, 
and in vanishing degree, gustatory, olfactory, and terpsichorean) 
is used as a means to exalt or suppress tendencies to social or 
anti-social action (cf. patriotic music, painting, sculpture and 
architecture; religious music, incense, graphic art; music ex- 
alting fine love between sexes; stories of filial obligation; etc.). 

/, Enlightenment, giving extended social insight, becomes a mod- 
ern means of transcendent importance. 
References: 1:51-67; 349-73; 478-99; 2:51-97; 3:175-221 ; 4:244-65; 
21:581-96; 22:334-54; 23:653-86; 25:1-77; 27:171-201. 

Addams (2), Bradford, Breckenridge, Dealy, Ely, Fiske (2), Ghent, 
Kropotkin, Lavelye, Maine, Poole, Ross (1), Smith (2). 

E. Economic Production 

Primitive man depended, for food, shelter and tools, upon the "bounty 
of nature." Modern man tills the soil, raises domestic animals, mines 
ores, manufactures numberless articles of necessity or luxury and organ- 
izes exchange of commodities and services at near and remote ranges. 
Especially significant sociologically is his harnessing of natural forces. 
The "will to live, to multiply and replenish the earth," is thus made 
possible largely by economic inventions, conservation of goods, and sub- 
division of labor. Modern developments of economic efficiency now com- 
mand attention and effort so largely that careless thinkers identify eco- 
nomic with social efficiency. 

The possession of economic resources is basic to other forms of well- 
being; hence any increase of population or rise in standards of living 
produce economic pressures which frequently lead to mass or collective 
movements of peoples. Some scholars interpret "economic determinism" 
as the most fundamental fact in the making of history as we know it — 
a history of conquest, of vast migrations, of exploration and settlement, 
of perennial conflicts for rich valleys and commercially strategic posi- 
tions, of centralized governments formed about rich areas, of industrial 
exploitation, of emergence of the economically oppressed. "All great 
wars are rooted in economic conflict." 

Many modern social problems originate in the "industrial revolution" — 
less than two centuries old — ^which involves substitution of power driven 
machinery for hand labor, specialization of productive processes among 
workers, widespread regional specialization of basic production, congre- 
gation of workers, corporate ownership and control of production, wage- 
earning (and therefore regimented) work of women and children, gov- 



36 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ernmental oversight of trade and production. Modern problems of poli- 
tics, internal as well as external to nations, rest heavily on economic is- 
sues. Socialism transmutes economic aspirations into something akin to 
religion, with its own earthly beneficient and maleficient deities and heaven. 

Under primitive production, producer and consumer were the same or in 
intimate juxtaposition. Under modern production they are commonly far 
removed and unintelligible to each other. Similar chasms now exist be- 
tween employed and employing workers. Hence endless misunderstand- 
ings, development of deep-seated convictions as to the malevolence of "the 
other," and erection of militant organization to secure "justice." Es- 
pecially is it felt that efficiency in production is not paralleled by economy 
or fairness in exchange. Equally widespread is conviction that "value of 
product" is not fairly distributed among agencies producing — capital 
owners (rent, interest), enterprisers and risk takers (profits), and labor 
(wages). About these issues are waged endless destructive conflicts, 
threatening to become wars. Demands for governmental supervision, 
direction, control are incessant and impose wholly new strains on political 
organization. 

Basic principles of economic efficiency are obscure. Granted govern- 
mental supervision adequate to insure "fair play" and prevention of mo- 
nopoly, should free competition of effort and free operation of law of 
supply and demand be allowed to determine prices, wages of adult work- 
ers, rewards of capital and enterprise, supply of products? Would courses 
based on other principles, — e.g., the socialistic ideal of workers compensa- 
tion "to each according to his needs, from each according to his abilities" 
— presuppose powers for collective action now non-existent? 

The effects of modern production on individual well-being are in dis- 
pute. Within limits it is desirable that "the maximum of economic goods, 
for least effort" should be the economic goal of individual and social 
group production. But this good may be purchased at too heavy a price in 
health, family life, culture, sociability, interest in beauty, or religion. It 
is alleged that existing conditions "mechanize" workers, stifle inventive- 
ness, render life sordid, impoverish interests in culture, beauty, worship. 
Does comparison with past ages or with peoples now hardly touched by 
the "industrial revolution" bear out these contentions ? But final valuations 
require that we should take numbers as well as qualities into account. Only 
machinery, trade, corporate production, great specialization of process 
makes Rhode Island, the "Black Belt" of England, Belgium and Chicago 
possible. Legislative control tends steadily towards reduction of working 
day and week, higher minimum age of entrance upon full-time work, 
regulation of hours of women's labor, improvement of sanitary conditions, 
publicity or corporate action. Can adequate correction of ills of mecha- 
nized production be found along those lines? Are more comprehensive 
methods practicable? Does "industrial democracy" represent feasible 
ideals ? 

Conflicting aspirations for economic efficiency are commonly implicit 
and sometimes explicit in nearly all contemporary social thinking: (a) 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 37 

Hopes that control of power, applications of science, and harmonious or- 
ganization of agencies of production will so go forward that "the yoke of 
toil" shall be taken off the neck of the race, (b) Desires that old condi- 
tions of production — handicraft (the artist's dream), rural, individual, be 
restored, (c) Aspirations for the democratization of production. 

Several facts of importance to sociologists require consideration : (o) 
Standards of utilization are rising wherever economic production grows. 
Better and more foodstuffs, housing, clothing, means of amusements, edu- 
cation and opportunities for relief from arduous toil are demanded, (b) 
For purposes of general consumption, and especially in time of war or 
other social need, popular demand is for "quantity production" and of 
"standardized parts" — whether of wheat, sugar, canned fruits, cotton 
cloth, steel rails, phonograph records, furniture, shoes or of houses, pic- 
tures, cars, or clothing, (c) Social workers — using the term inclusively 
to cover preachers, teachers, reformers, relief workers, writers and others 
in whom social sentiments bulk large — are quite generally emotionally 
hostile to all those factors which seem closely associated with modern 
"large scale" production — corporations, machine production, standardiza- 
tion of product, subdivision of productive process, the entrepreneur's vo- 
cation, free play of normal competition, and free operation of the law of 
supply and demand in regulating prices, wages, interest, profits, regional 
specialization of production, congregation of workers, scientific super- 
vision of work, etc. (d) Widespread discontent among workers, investors, 
and consumers seems to grow rather than lessen and it becomes of su- 
preme importance to discover whether it is chiefly unjustified discontent 
with the inevitable limitations of nature and man, or discontent with re- 
mediable, man-made, or at least man-permitted, conditions. 

The possible effects of modern economic conditions on education are 
several: (a) Where they increase individual productivity and thrift, they 
extend, in time and qualitatively, possibilities of all kinds of education. 

(b) For many, perhaps all, vocations called for in specialized and scien- 
tific production, school vocational education (instead of "by-product" 
training) becomes highly remunerative to the individual and to society. 

(c) The social complexities produced impose heavy responsibilities for 
civic or social education adequate to give true appreciations (for civic 
conformity and voting) and powers of execution (criticism, leadership). 

References: 1:51-67; 349-73; 478-99; 2:51-97; 3:175-221; 4:244-65; 
150; 22:334-47; 27:486-571. 

Abbott, Bailey, Bogart, Clay, Country Life Commission, Devine, Ghent, 
King, Lauch, Lavelye, Price, Rogers, Smith (1), Streightoff, Tead, Toyn- 
bee, Veblen, Willis. 

F. Religion 

In broadest sociological sense religion embraces man's relations with 
unseen personalities or conscious agencies. Very early in the evolution 
of intelligence (especially creative imagination) man peopled the dark- 
ness, the distant reaches, the hereafter, with personalities, some benevo- 



38 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

lent, some malevolent, some neutral. To them he imputes actual or po- 
tential intervention in human affairs. Naively he interprets them in terms 
of his experience, imaginatively exaggerated or minimized, thus giving: 
deities like great men, fine w^omen, lovable children; malevolent beings 
like criminals, unlovely women, malicious dwarfs; dragons (combining 
fearsome attributes of wolves and serpents) ; heaven as a fair land ; 
sheol as a fiery and dry place of torment. 

In this sense all peoples at all times have had religions. Doubtless 
there are instincts, vague but imperative, forcing projection of conceived 
personalities into inaccessible places or conditions of universe; and wel- 
coming the rebound of their influence on aspirations and conduct. Perhaps 
these instincts are part of man's general powers of projecting ends which 
react on behavior — become goals towards which he aspires, or conditions 
which he must avoid. "The fiend that man harries is love of the best." 
"Man never is, but always to be, blest." 

Religious faiths and beliefs — fear or love-inspiring, and interpretative of 
true justice, admirable qualities of character, serene and wise purposive- 
ness — ^have always been used as powerful agencies of social control, with 
especial effect in areas of secret action, invisible purpose. In primitive 
stages of social evolution fear, vengeance, material comfort are charac- 
teristic means of appeal; in later stages, love, altruism, restfulness, im- 
personal justice. 

Widened experience and increase of scientific knowledge destroy credi- 
bility of anthropomorphic divinities and fiends — religious beliefs necessarily 
become abstract, rationalized. But children, and adults of low intelligence, 
learn through the concrete, the anthropomorphic; and respond, in fear, 
love, and ideal, chiefly to personal, or "human" conceptions of supernatural 
beings." Hence increasing difficulties under modern conditions of preserv- 
ing realism of religion in education, social control, and elevation of the 
young, and of adults not abstractly imaginative. 

Hence strong trend in all current movements towards religious efficiency 
to center ends in social efficiency — on assumption that social well-being on 
earth (of the best sort) most nearly accords with divine will. 

References: 1:220-271; 457-78; 4:115-137; 21:551-81; 22; 137-53; 23:- 
640-53; 25:126-218; 27:337-64. 

Churchill, Coe, Cooley (1), Davenport (2), Ellis, Mathews, Taylor, 
Tyler, White. 

G. Knowledge 

The accumulation, organization, and interpretation (in terms of rela- 
tions and of values) of the facts of experience become early in social 
evolution a necessary means to many kinds of social efficiency. But in 
the individual, feelings (aesthetic and other) and faiths tend constantly 
to color and distort perception, and especially interpretation, of facts of 
experience. Science emerges only when knowledge becomes largely refined 
from feeling and faith elements. Hence for long periods upholders of 
institutions resting on faith (religion, various forms of social control, 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 39 

healing) and aesthetic apprehension have resisted scientific inquiry — 
which, in initial stages, is often more socially destructive than constructive. 
But at intervals in the past, and conspicuously in modern times, the pur- 
suit of scientific knowledge becomes a great collective purpose, — natu- 
rally first in those areas where institutions closely interwoven with cher- 
ished faiths are least developed, or where such institutions first give way 
because of ineffectiveness. Hence war, economic activities, and health 
conservation are first areas for application of scientific knowledge; social 
control and education are next; while aesthetics, genetics, and religion 
will come late. But in the meantime "pure science" develops in all fields 
of nature — physical, biological, psychological, sociological; and from the 
many "pure sciences" are increasingly being drawn the undisputed facts, 
demonstrated relationships, and tested evaluations which give to society 
"scientific efficiency." 

References : 1 :329-49 ; 393-9 ; 2 :353-72 ; 3 :268-97 ; 4 :339-62 ; 21 :652-91 ; 
22:132-153; 23:626-53; 25:257-325; 27:306-37. 
Duncan, Morris, Wallace, White, Williams. 

H. Aesthetic Efficiency 

Man inherits a variety of instinctive preferences called aesthetic, some 
of which are, or have been, definitely related to survival and some of 
which are alleged to be "goods" or "values" in themselves, independent 
of racial or individual survival. The aesthetic preferences are character- 
ized by strong feeling perceptions, commonly through the senses. For 
convenience aesthetic experiences may be grouped as : 

tf. The tactual, where the "feel" of articles touched gives aesthetic sen- 
sation, 

b. The gustatory, associated with flavors of foods, drink, and a few 
other objects. 

c. The olfactory, as given by odors, scents, perfumes, etc. 

d. The visual, involving especially harmonies and associations of form, 
color and motion. 

e. The auditory, involving especially harmonies and associations of 
sound. 

/. The imaginary, involving agreeable memories and obscure harmonies 
only remotely affecting or affected by sense perception. 

Few valuations representing important collective judgment to-day at- 
tach to aesthetic appreciations on tactual, gustatory and olfactory planes. 
On certain sumptuary planes, "pleasures" are sought in foods, drink, per- 
fumes, fondling, but these are usually regarded as "sensual," degenera- 
tive. Possibly these sensual pleasures once had survival values in stimu- 
lating right, and repressing wrong, courses of action. Certain refined 
interests towards "educative" aesthetic sensibilities in these areas are 
to-day associated with high standards, but probably in no vital manner. 

Aesthetic sensibilities in visual, auditory, and imaginative areas seem 



40 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

to make appeal (as lure or repellent) on two psychologically distinct 
(though often blended) grounds, one associative, the other intrinsic. 
Certain harmonies of sound always give pleasure, apart, apparently, from 
all associations; whilst other sounds, not always harmonious, give pleas- 
urable emotions, commonly called aesthetic, by virtues of the memories, 
the associations they recall. (Note difference between "good" and 
"popular" music.) Pictures, statues, decorations sometimes give lively 
satisfaction because of intrinsic "art qualities," sometimes for the associa- 
tions they inspire. The same seems to be true of pure "literary art" — 
poems, stories, essays; as well as of the complex fine arts — drama, song, 
opera, photodrama, dancing, architecture, pageant. The distinctions here 
suggested are of the utmost importance to all efforts at discovering and 
utilizing the "social values" of the arts that make aesthetic appeal. Socio- 
logy seems to possess little light as yet on the aesthetic values. 

References : 1 :191-206 ; 329-49 ; 21 :490-508 ; 25 :234-291. 

Haddon, Morris, Powers, Tolstoi. 

I. Social Efficiency Through Stock 

1. The organic foundations of all qualities in the individual that make 
for personal or social efficiency are found in the inherited or original 
nature of man. The character, possibilities and limitations of some in- 
herited organs and functions are easily observed and described — bodily 
size, strength ; hairlessness ; uprightness of stature ; flexibility of thumb, 
vocal organs ; instinctive curiosity, acquisitiveness, pugnacity, fears ; edu- 
cability in mathematics, music ; etc. Others are yet obscure, even though 
unmistakable, in their effects. We know that all persons are in greater or 
less degree : resistant to various diseases ; inventive ; possessed of instincts 
of workmanship, worship, altruism, aesthetic appreciation, and parental 
devotion ; capable of being trained in complex skills ; endowed with possi- 
bilities of longevity, etc. Individuals obviously vary greatly as respects 
their inherited possessions of the organic foundations of these qualities, 
and it seems very probable that family groups, geographic groups, and 
racial groups, vary also. These differences, in so far as they are persistent, 
have been the products, chiefly, of biological evolution — appearance of 
mutants, natural selection, survival of the best adapted (to the existing 
material and social environment). If a proper comparison of the "Nor- 
dic" or other northwestern European stock with a Congo negro stock 
shows the former to be "superior" to the latter in pugnacity, mechanical 
inventiveness, powers of forming and capacities of accepting government, 
devotion to monogamous family, etc. ; and "inferior" in resistance to 
malaria, in love of rhythm and powers of singing naturally in harmony, 
and in submissiveness to slave labor, then we must assume (on the hypo- 
thesis of a single origin of the human species) that these differences of 
stock have been produced by selective evolution actuated by environment. 

2. Are human "stocks" being improved by natural selection at the pre- 
sent time? And is it practicable artificially to improve existing stocks as 
respects their biological qualities? These questions are of great interest 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 4I 

and are probably destined to receive prolonged study. But it is practi- 
cable here only to suggest some of the specific problems involved: 

a. Wherever an agency of selection operates freely among a people 
in such a way as to prevent certain kinds of individuals from 
having progeny, then, other things being equal, it is probable 
that the "stock" is being "improved" in the direction of the 
qualities of those not eliminated. Diseases of childhood, prosti- 
tution, possibly alcoholism, peripatetic labor, tuberculosis, doubt- 
less tend to elimination of weaker strands ; similarly the spirit 
of adventure, forest dwelling, earliest pioneering, social ambi- 
tion, the fastidiousness of the over-refined, religious monasti- 
cism, and (under some economic and ethical conditions) venereal 
disease, tend to withhold progeny from stocks or strands es- 
teemed as "strong." It is a plausible hypothesis that in all 
economically advancing countries during the last fifty years 
desired "standards of comfort" are eliminating certain superior 
strands through "differential race suicide." But in all the cases 
given, variable or offsetting factors may yet be defined. 

b. Wherever peoples of differing religions, races, standards of liv- 
ing, or interests in congregate life live side by side, selection 
favors the type that brings to maturity, and parentage in turn, 
the largest numbers. It is alleged that among Catholics and 
Jews large families are favored more than among Protestants ; 
that Alpine and Mediterranean stocks have been more prolific 
than the Nordic; that rural dwellers rear more and better off- 
spring than urban dwellers ; that suburban or middle class 
people represent the best stock and the lowest fecundity now 

found. Other factors are: prevailing age of marriage (an av- 
erage age of marriage at 20 could give five generations in a 
century, whereas at 25, four) ; the high child death rate in 

large families of poor (Russians, negroes, Chinese) ; the rela- 
tive sterility (alleged) of educated, refined and other women 
whose "work" has been chiefly intellectual ; residence in the 
tropics as contrasted with same in colder regions in producing 
irresponsibility towards thrift, fecundity, etc. ; the constantly 
increasing economic burden (especially on the father) of child 
rearing, imposed partly by custom, partly by law. 

c. Where peoples do not interpenetrate (India and Europe, China 
and America), the more prolific may be in process of more rapid 
evolution than the less (doubtful at present). 

d. Certain kinds of eugenic selection have long taken place in for- 
mation of families: (1) Probably the well-born and the well- 
bred tend always to attract each other towards marriage rather 
than the reverse. (2) Where caste, religious, economic, and 
racial groups mingle, custom, and even law, strongly favor keep- 
ing the higher types pure. (3) Where parental influence or 



42 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

reason and forethoughtfulness play a large part in selection for 
marriage, usual tendency is to favor "better" heredity. 

To these should be added in primitive life wife capture, wife 
purchase, and polygamy, all of which probably had eugenic 
effects, possibly offset in defects of rearing. 

e. Among certain kinds of social groups dysgenic influences are 
obvious. (I) Some occupations involve a migratory life which 
largely prevents formation of families — conspicuously those of 
the sailor, mercenary soldier, trapper, casual labor and (under 
present conditions) some exceptionally expert labor. 

"Down to Gehenna or up to the Throne, 
He travels fastest who travels alone." 

(2) Modern wars probably eliminate many potential fathers of 
families. (3) Feminine refinement, and also revolt against 
''economic dependence,." probably now promote permanent 
celibacy of certain superior strains, usually those of "well-to- 
do" ancestry. (4) Fin de Steele weariness, aestheticism, re- 
ligious mysticism, economic pessimism, seem often so to weaken 
the "will to live," or to increase the selfishness of the individuals 
of substantial groups, as to destroy effective interest in family 
life. 

/. Certain social valuations are growing in our day whose ultimate 
consequences on stock are not yet wholly calculated. (1) The 
very large, irresponsibly produced, "rabbit warren" family is in 
general disfavor. (2) Preventable celibacy among men is so- 
cially disapproved. (3) Illegitimate motherhood and fatherhood 
are increasingly condemned, but the social condemnation on 
"illegitimate" childhood is being mitigated. (4) Continence 
and other means of "birth control" are increasingly approved 
among families aspiring to better standards of life. 

g. Much consideration, some of it scientific, is now being given to 
social eugenics — that is, to the purposeful control by law or 
effective public opinion of marriage so as to "improve" the 
stock. (1) Negative eugenics looks to prevention of marriage 
(and of course, pro tanto, of illegitimate procreation of those 
likely to transmit inheritable defects, blindness, deafness, im- 
becility, alcoholism, effects of venereal disease, etc. (2) Posi- 
tive eugenics favors the marriage, and especially reasonably 
large families, of the racially "fit," partly by removal of arti- 
ficial difficulties, and partly by public assistance — premiums 
for large families (France), part release from income taxes, 
maternity insurance, etc. 

h. But no comprehensive programs for artificial improvement of 
human stocks yet appear, due partly to ignorance as to what 
qualities, or combination of qualities, should be sought as ends ; 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 43 

and partly because effective means of control savor of unde- 
mocratic invasion of individual liberty. 
3. International problems are rendered complex largely by biological 
factors. The following especially require consideration. 

a. Where stocks or races have long been isolated from each other, 
physical traits and social inheritances are so different as to 
make "assimilation" difficult, if not impracticable. If, then, 
migration takes place by one into area occupied by another with 
higher standard of life, the former tends, ultimately, to super- 
cede the latter in the occupations with largest numbers. 

b. It is believed by geographers that long residence in the tropics 

tends, through heredity, and through customs affecting individu- 
als, to disqualify men for the kinds of work, cooperation, ag- 
gression, and invention that give the largest and most effective 
groupings in the more favored regions of the temperate zones. 
Historically this has led to persistent subjugation and exploita- 
tion of the climatically less favored peoples. But where protec- 
tion is extended to these tropical dwellers, they seem to multiply 
(India, South Africa, Mexico), and to aggravate low standards 
of living. If a period of tutelage will elevate them, then a pos- 
sible course of democratic international policy is open. But are 
they below their rulers in some essentials of "stock"? Then, 
perhaps only permanent super-control would suffice. Would 
purposive eugenic control to the extent of restricting marriage 
to the economically promising tend to mitigate harmful in- 
equalities ? 
References: 1:51-82; 271-83; 425-57; 2:149-311; 21:29-42; 209-301; 

596-611; 22:208-54; 23:404-25; 25:1-49; 27:263-86. 
Conklin, Davenport (1), Deniker, Devine, Drysdale, Dugdale, Ellis, 

Ferris, Fiske, Goodsell, Huntington (2), Johnston, Reid, Saleeby, Starr, 

Thomas, Winship. 

J. Democracy 

1. Nature produces many great inequalities among individuals com- 
posing human society ; and these are often intensified, given social ap- 
proval, and perpetuated by social art, 

a. The young usually possess physical, mental and social powers 
inferior to the mature. Normally, therefore, the young are 
subordinate, and in need of protection from possible abuse, 
exploitation, suppression. The very aged, also, become inferior 
to the middle-aged in physical, mental, and other powers, and 
often require social protection. 

b. Women are natively inferior to men of same ages, during mature 
years, in physical strength, mobility, and in the mental qualities 
associated with aggression against animals and hostile men. 
Women probably surpass men in social qualities of sympathy. 



44 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

aesthetic response, and ready subordination to minute routine 
work. Cultures intimately rooted in conditions of war and hunt- 
ing give aggressive men endless opportunities to subjugate, op- 
press, overwork, and repress women, which disabilities are only 
slowly removed, as cultures shake ofif war influences. 

c. Only some portions of the earth's surface possess optimum ma- 

terial environment for means of development. Climates can be 
too cold or too warm, too dry or too humid, too variable or 
too uniform to give maximum development of the individual, 
even apart from conditions of dietetic nurture or shelter. The 
frigid zones, the lowlands of the torrid zone, the deserts and 
the regions of heavy persistent rainfall, the Siberias where 
barometric variability is slight — these seem to develop man 
poorly as contrasted with those sections of the temperate zone 
where cold and heat, not extreme, rapidly alternate, and where 
dry days and humid days also rapidly succeed each other. In 
lesser degree, topographical conditions seem to affect develop- 
ment — it has long been believed that, under primitive conditions, 
mountain, seashore, and desert folk are more rugged, endur- 
ing, and mobile than plainsmen. (But these need further ex- 
amination of occupational concomitants.) Of most importance 
to the modern development (of large numbers and of differenti- 
ated occupations) is fact that natural resources for food and 
tools are distributed variably. Only four regions seem to pos- 
sess the combined stores of coal and iron necessarj'- for modern 
war or industrial development. Only limited areas can now 
produce on the gigantic scales required wheat, meat, cotton, 
rubber, oil, copper, rice, sisal hemp. 

Historically, peoples of favored regions have been able, by 
virtue of superior powers of individual, superior numbers, or 
superior organization, to dominate (with resulting extermi- 
nation, enslavement, and oppression — economic, political, relig- 
ious, cultural) peoples of adverse environment. Some of the 
profounder problems of democracy to-day involve correction of 
these oppressions. 

d. Probably many generations of natural and eugenic selection 

under differing environment produce finally inherent or racial 
superiorities and inferiorities which no cultural agencies can 
offset. It is certain that Chinese and Japanese are of less 
stature than Western Europeans and that the skull size of 
certain tropical groups is small. Do Ainus, Dravidians, Maoris. 
Diggers, Bushmen, represent inferior stocks contrasted with 
Manchus, Sikhs, Sioux, Kaffirs? Do Goth, Teuton, and 
Norman represent a Nordic race superior in most essentials 
to Negro or American Indian? Here lie practical problems for 
future-world statesmanship. 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 45 

e. Within every family persons of the same apparent heredity are 
born with widely varying qualities — brothers differ as respects 
physical size, looks, mental abilities, aesthetic appreciations, 
social plasticities, dominance of sensual instincts, etc. Similarly, 
within communities of substantially similarly stocks, individuals 
appear with all grades of native superiority and inferiority. 
(Certify army and other "intelligence tests.") 

/. Within any given community group, superior heredity often 
tends to repeat in the same family group, and especially when 
favored by selective mating, thus giving local (as against con- 
quering) aristocracies. The aggrandizing tendencies of these 
lead to need of social restraints in the interest of the weaker. 

g. Similarly, even apart from advantages of native heredity, varia- 
tions in factors of social heredity — stored wealth, possession of 
strategic vocations, superior education — tend to accumulate and 
be transmitted in certain family, caste, or other local groups, 
here again eventually necessitating collective interference. 

h. Especially does such collective correction become necessary when 
variations in respect to native or social inheritance tend to 
crystallize in institutional forms — hereditary rulers, priesthoods, 
crafts, land-owners, traders ; or, in effect, monopolies of certain 
kinds of learning, culture, sumptuary right, economic direc- 
tion, etc. 

2. In the interests of certain kinds of "larger group" efficiency and 
social continuity it becomes necessary to shape, curb, train, organize, gov- 
ern, and "work" individuals or subordinated groups of individuals. These 
processes are considered under social control. 

But, to the same ends, it becomes necessary to assist, liberate, upbuild, 
encourage, and exalt individuals or subordinated groups of individuals. 
We shall here use the term "democracy" as inclusive of all these tendencies 
and ends. We can assume that "the greatest good of the greatest number" 
is the final justification of democracy and determines its desirable limits, 
subject to possible corrections : (a) from certain Christian tenets that 
each human soul is infinitely precious and that earthly inequalities are 
wholly negligible as against heaven-destined perfection; and (6) certain 
philosophic tenets that the "individual" is primarily an "end" in himself 
rather than a "means" to society or to many others. 

3. Possibilities of repression of individuals due to native inferiorities 
are primitively offset by : 

a. Natural sympathies of parents and other elders for youngers, 
leading to protection, education, encouragement of individual 
development. 

h. Filial and community sympathies with aged, and otherwise in- 
capacitated. 



46 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

c. Women's abilities to win affection, to enlist chivalry, and some- 

times to inspire fear, of men, especially in domestic and voca- 
tional fields in which man does not habitually operate. 

d. Subdivision of labor often evolves "protected harbor" occupa- 
tions into which individuals of inferior gifts fit quite comfort- 
ably. 

e. Similarly, bands, companies, gangs, form through conjoining of 

leadership of the strong with followship of the weak and thus 
insure to latter maximum of possible opportunity for self- 
realization. 

/. The inferior develop defensive unions in which numbers and 
organization produce offensive powers sufficient to insure some 
independence. 

g. The weak retreat to environments where competition with the 
strong is less pressing. 

4. But, in advanced stages of social evolution, possibilities of exploi- 
tation of weak individuals, weak groups, or weak stocks become great; 
while needs of "large group" social efficiency, as well as altruistic pursuit 
of "ideals of justice" progressively increase demands for removal of man 
imposed repressions of the weak, as well as reasonable mitigation of 
nature-imposed inferiorities. To these ends are addressed: (a) concert- 
ed effort of self-protecting organizations of the oppressed; {h) efforts of 
philanthropic bodies (including religious and voluntary political) on be- 
half of others than themselves (and perhaps using education, political 
action, and force) ; and eventually, (c) the efforts of the state itself, led 
thereto by its persuaded rulers or ruling majority. A thousand hard won 
achievements, contemporary "movements," and slowly crystalizing social 
ideals of this character may all be generalized as "modern" democracy. 
Some examples are: 

a. Parental interests and unorganized social sympathies with child- 
hood, have not sufficed to insure the "fair start in life" 
which democratic idealism aspires to. The orphan, the child 
born out of wedlock, the child prematurely forced to work away 
from home, and the child deprived of opportunities for educa- 
tion or religious communion — these have first claimed con- 
certed effort, which now manifests itself in scores of specific 
demands and collective movements. Present problems include : 
legitimation of the "illegitimate"; proper rearing of orphans; 
proper limits to "child labor" legislation ; state protection of 
motherhood; vocational guidance and training; health super- 
vision; supervision of parenthood; etc. 

h. The "disabilities of women" incorporated into law, religious 
custom, and subdivision of economic labor have been in pro- 
cess of gradual removal for centuries, but the end is not yet. 
Current movements for franchise; for vocational "equality"; 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 47 

for equal control, within the family group, of property, offspring, 
place of habitation, and rights of worship; and for other forms 
of "independence," are of poignant interest, partly because in 
some cases essential social foundations may be in process of 
being undermined faster than new supports are building. 

c. Vested inequalities of various kinds have been measurably cor- 

rected by modern movements for political democracy, originat- 
ing in revolts of "guild" cities, "protesting" religious denomina- 
tions, colonies, and unenfranchised majorities. Achievements 
can be traced in : impairment of hereditary nobilities ; spread of 
constitutional government; government through elected repre- 
sentatives; extension of suffrage; equalization of taxation; pro- 
tection of freedom of speech and press; development of public 
education; and numberless modifications of these in abolition of 
slavery, freedom of migration, secrecy of voting, etc. 

Problems appear as to : alien citizenship ; procuring govern- 
mental "efficiency" under the "many bosses" of democratic con- 
trol; dangers of "mass" control by those of inferior political 
experience, knowledge, or, possibly, potential abilities — negro 
caste, soviet of manual laborers, warrens of city, a special reli- 
gious group; how to "educate" individuals for social efficiency. 

Aspirations for more political democracy within modern 
nation are now chiefly confined to unenfranchised adults, repress- 
ed racial group (negroes, "submerged nationalities"), repressed 
geographic groups (cities wanting home rule, Rhode Island's 
opposition to Constitution), and victims of political machinery, 
"bosses" or bureaucracies. 

d. Under "social democracy" we can include aspirations, programs, 
and achievements for correction or mitigation of disabilities, 
due to nature or social art, on consumption, intermarriage, 
sociability, culture, migration, worship, etc. 

Formerly, as outcomes of totemic, religious, caste, and other 
restrictions of social control, many restraints were imposed 
upon consumption, and especially on decoration. Some food 
taboos are yet imposed by churches, and dress of sexes is still 
forcibly differentiated. But where political democracy prevails 
other sumptuary restraints on the individual have dwindled to 
convential forms (coats for men, decorative uniforms in 
army, etc.). 

Intermarriage of white and black castes is now legally pro- 
hibited in many states. Strong conventionalities restrain free- 
dom of marriage between individuals of unlike economic, an- 
cestral ot religious connections. But freedom of divorce oper- 
ates to give relative independence to women, with balance of 
harm probably for children. 



48 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

In family, and in club sociability, a maximum of democracy 
tends to prevail within groups "elected" to be homogeneous; 
accompanied by markedly exclusive, "undemocratic" attitudes 
towards the "non-elect." Note examples in cliques, gangs, 
"sets," social clubs, fraternities, "secret societies," grades of 
hotels, Pullman cars, residence districts, occupational levels, 
cultural levels. But commercialization of amusements (photo- 
drama, restaurant, dance hall, excursion, resorts, etc.) and 
transportation (street cars, local trains and local ships having 
no "classes") as well as public provision of social facilities — 
streets, parks, public lectures, public libraries, museums, — all 
weaken or remove barriers to "democratic" association. 

But free association or sociability is now governed largely 
by sumptuary and other caste-like cleavages. "Sets" or "classes" 
restrict to those able to dress, entertain, recreate, and educate 
on similar planes. Manners, conventions, mutual interests, 
thus become stratified in society, each plane relatively insulated 
from those above and below. Of only somewhat less vitality 
in preventing 'sociability" democracy are racial, religious, and 
occupational distinctions. 

Formerly "culture classes" held apart, especially the "erudite" 
and the unlettered. Latin and Greek were once prized because 
they denoted "gentle rearing." Now these distinctions tend to 
disappear as moderate education becomes general, but similar 
distinctions attach to "club" groupings for sociability purposes. 

Formerly collective action greatly impeded freedom of migra- 
tion and residence. Surviving restrictions rest largely on 
grounds of political expediency, and are directed chiefly against 
immigration, property holding and trade (cf. immigration of 
Hindoos to Canada, Australia, South Africa; of Chinese, 
Japanese, polygamists and avowed anarchists to the United 
States; of low class English labor to Canada, etc.). 

Formerly, religions were variously exclusive. Some held no 
salvation for women, low castes, peoples not chosen by God. 
But the world faiths have been strongly propagandistic, in- 
clusive, and even destructive of undemocratic barriers resting 
on other grounds (primitive Christianity, Quakerism, Unltari- 
ianism, Roman Catholicism). Caste (blacks vs. whites) affects 
some churches in America; while economic differences are 
alleged to debar the "poor" from others. 

Except in case of color barriers to free intermarriage, exist- 
ing limitations on "social democracy" seem to inhere more 
fundamentally in economic differentiations (productive powers, 
possessions, consuming powers, standards of living) than in 
race, religion, or ancestral family, since economic equalization, 
after a period for adjustment, seems to remove barriers more 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONINGS 49 

certainly than other changes. Probably this affects contempo- 
rary interest in "industrial democracy." 

e. Under the term "industrial democracy" should be considered 
many of the most vital aspirations of the present age. These 
are probably inevitable effects of recent rapid economic develop- 
ments, transformations of productive processes, multiplications 
of populations, rising standards of living, curtailment of natural 
resources, etc. 

Native inequalities of productive ability — due to age, sex 
physical strength and dexterity, endurance, mental powers, self- 
control, avid appetites, combine everywhere with socially pro- 
duced inequalities — birth in poor regions and of poor parents or 
in poor times, acquired ill-health, deprivation of suitable edu- 
cation, accidental entrance upon a badly developed or declining 
economic "lead," to give numberless and very wide economic 
inequalities between regional classes, classes derived from dif- 
ferent economic levels, and classes affected by different stages 
or types of economic evolution ; and still wider inequalities 
among individuals. Political democracy, general education, and 
freedom of migration tend to mitigate these inequalities, but 
probably not to the same extent that these influences generally 
raise standards of living, which are always the torturing pro- 
vocatives of economic demand. 

Communism (of ownership and for consumption) becomes 
one end of economic democracy (an end realized in the family, 
the pioneering company or industrial crew, and many primitive 
religious communities, but with no enduring examples among 
complex, advanced peoples). Co-partnership, profit-and-loss 
sharing, guild control, state operation (with no "profits"), and 
cooperative exchange, are current experiments towards other 
kinds of economic democracy. 

5. Efforts to realize ideals of democracy as factors in social efficiency 
give rise to many problems of conflicting social forces. Where life is 
primitive, scattered, unorganized, there are few problems of democracy 
since (a) man collectively has little means of removing nature-imposed 
disabilities on the individual, and (6) collectively he has had reason to 
impose only a few of his own that are not essential to small group 
survival. 

But as men multiply, organize and expand the social inheritance, their 
powers of helping various kinds and classes of individuals to fuller lives, 
in spite of natural limitations, increase ; and the possibilities of more care- 
fully adjusting the yokes of social control, economic control, and of in- 
creasing justice so as to preserve the social effectiveness of the individual 
and at the same time give him the maximum of individual freedom 
always exist. For Great Britain, France and America, the most pressing 
current problems seem to be those of democratizing all those social agencies 



50 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

in which elaborateness of mechanism oppresses, or seems to oppress, the 
individual or sub-group. 

Everywhere the radicals strive for more democracy of some variety 
(sometimes organizing their strivings in very undemocratic ways) and in 
propaganda they ignore or depreciate social achievements under methods 
they would correct or supplant. Everywhere the conservatives strive 
against hasty or far-reaching action, fearing to lose in revolution, present 
gains — fearing especially, of course, on behalf of themselves and those 
nearest them. The mills of the gods meantime grind on and nature 
ultimately gives the final verdict. Note some of the problems : 

a. Political democracy, having achieved general suffrage and re- 
moved disability to office holding, finds endless difficulties in the 
complexities of the problems it faces. Officials will not act as 
majority superficially think they should, hence correctives sought 
in recall, initiative and referendum, soviet (economic class) 
representation, simplification of constitutional amendment, the 
short ballot, etc. Hence popular opposition to appointment of 
officials to indefinite tenure, and other conditions provocative 
of bureaucracy. 

b. Freedom of access of women to all wage earning employments 
has been won, but ultimate effects of this on normal family life 
constitute problems. 

c. Production organized on corporation basis creates extensive regi- 
mentation of workers. Initiative lies chiefly with those factors 
who own, or can command capital wherewith to procure means 
of production — land, mines, patents, machines, raw materials, 
franchises, technical knowledge. In corporation production — 
best exemplified in railroads, factories, banks, steamships, 
mines, some tropical farming — areas of individual initiative are 
lessened (possibly with local intensification, however) as is 
military initiative for the soldier in the large army. Hence 
eventually collective dissatisfaction unionization for self-pro- 
tection, and emergence of vague but insistent demands for "in- 
dustrial democracy." Can a large army be democratic and ef- 
ficient? C^n the crew effectively dictate or share in determin- 
ing the course of a steamer? To what extent can workers 
determine policies of a large factory? Who shall take the initia- 
tive in development, e. g., in planning new railways or opening 
new mines? (Note discussion later of distinctions between 
powers to discover courses of action, and capacities to 
discriminate among courses devised by specialists, as basis for 
domestic control.) 

References: 1:157-91; 399-414; 541-52; 3:101-47; 4:159-75; 21:431-49; 
632-52; 22:394-400; 23:678-97; 25:428-43; 27:451-86; 26:94-118. 

Addams (1), Antin, Bogart, Carlton, Cooley (2), Coolidge, Dean, 
Dewey, Eliot, George, Ghent, Hadley, Hill, Hollister, Jenks, Lee (1), 
Mecklin, Putnam, Riis, Roosevelt, Ross (4), Ward (1). 



CHAPTER IV 
SOCIAL STANDARDS DETERMINING EDUCATIONAL 

OBJECTIVES 

1. Societies are made up of individuals, each of whom must be prepared 
to "fit in," to "play his part." In a purely practical sense there can be 
no society apart from individuals composing it. 

a. Tools, buildings, ideas, languages, laws, institutions become 
vital only as used by individuals. The social inheritance, 
though in part transmitted in concrete and objective form, is 
at last made available for each new generation only by and 
through individuals. One function of social economy is to help 
establish good (socially approved) conditions for individuals; 
but another equally important is to help shape individuals in 
■whom and through whom the social inheritance can profitably 
be invested and increased. 

b. It is not intended here to raise the historic issue, society vs. the 

individual. For practical purposes it is clear that in any social 
group it is possible for the Individual (at least temporarily, and 
also on the basis of felt or assumed values, — perhaps only ap- 
parent values) to foster his own interests at the expense of the 
group (cf. self-centered member of family, grasping partner, 
corrupt citizen, cowardly soldier, monopolist, idler) ; while it 
is no less possible for a social group in pursuit of its real or 
imagined aims (imagined by its more influential members often) 
excessively to cramp, suppress, or overwork the individual 
(cf. Ancestor worship, political restraint of thought and action, 
excessive or hurtful service exacted by economic organizations, 
"judicial cruelty," slavery, suppression of women, military domi- 
nation, parasitism of certain professions). Practically, it is 
clear that existence for civilized man is possible only in and 
through societies to which he has been shaped, and equally, 
that social life is practicable only by virtue of the presence 
of sufficient personalities suitably shaped for it. Note Kant's 
insistence that man, however lowly, must be regarded - as a 
means, but always as an end. Christianity involves the same 
ideal. Democracy involves as its central ideal, the worth 
of the individual, "man as an end." 

2. Educational objectives then, must be products of at least two vari- 
able factors: (o) what kinds and amounts of education are, in the case of 
given individuals (or, practically, groups or classes considered as to 
native abilities, sex, probable opportunities), to be regarded as of 

51 



52 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

"optimum" possibilities for individual well-being — growth, self-realiza- 
tion, satisfaction of instincts for creation, freedom, expression, etc.; (b) 
What kinds and amounts of education are, in the case of individuals, 
classified as to native powers, probable opportunities, etc., to be regarded 
as of optimum possibilities from the standpoint of permanent "group" 
w^ell-being — the nation, the family, the church, the "stock," "American- 
ism," democratic peoples, etc. 

a. No complete separation of these two classes of objectives is 
practicable : but only the believer in Utopias will hold that they 
are not more or less in conflict — the same who believes the in- 
terests of labor and capital are "identical." Practically, it is a 
matter of relative stressing — now objectives of individual reali- 
zation, now "small group" ends, now those of the comprehen- 
sive church, the nation, or even "humanity." (Read Chap. 3 of 
H. G. Well's The New MachiavelU.) 

b. The limits of practicable education are, of course, always found 
at some point of "diminishing returns," first in the educability 
of the given individual and second in the available social re- 
sources to support such education. It is certain that individu- 
als by virtue of native inheritance, vary greatly in their capa- 
cities to learn to run, climb, follow game, solve mathematical 
problems, lead others, appreciate music, speak other languages, 
be guided by moral ideals, resist specific temptations and ac- 
quire specific vocational skills. Furthermore societies of given 
times and places vary greatly in possession of resources (not 
merely salaries for teachers, buildings, and equipment, but also 
available teaching personnel, tested methods of instruction and 
training) whereby education can be carried on. Most forms of 
by-education are relatively inexpensive, and sometimes very ef- 
fective; most forms of direct education are expensive, and 
sometimes very ineffective. (See Chap. 13 in L. F. Ward's 
Applied Sociology for elaboration of this that if proper methods 
of instruction were once worked out people of even low ability 
could assimilate "difficult" knowledge, — e.g., mathematics, po- 
litical science. In other words, that there are such things as 
"royal roads to learning" and it is as much an obligation of 
society collectively to grade and pave such roads for all people 
as it is to grade and pave roadways for material commerce.) 

3. Except under conditions of extraordinary social change (in some 
particular function — G.g., economic, civic, migration, invention, war) it is 
reasonably safe to assume that the first standards or social criteria for 
practical social efficiency and therefore for educational objectives can be 
found in selected groups or grades of adult individuals now composing 
society. In any event, provisional standards, subject to subsequent 
specific modification, can thus be derived. 



SOCIAL STANDARDS 53 

a. As a convenient means of deriving such a group, let us 
grade adults 25-35 years of age into four classes, on the basis 
of their possession of one or more measurable (or at least rank- 
able) qualities. If no criteria of objective character are used 
already in social science, we can arbitrarily place the twenty 
per cent of our cases having quality in the highest or most ap- 
proved form in the A class, the next 30 per cent in the B class, 
the next 30 per cent in the C class, and the lowest 20 per cent 
in the D class. (If we were using criteria already established, 
we should often be obliged to employ different proportions ; 
e.g., if men 30-40 were divided into grades A, rich; B, fairly 
prosperous; C, poor (but self-supporting) ; and D (dependent), 
ratios would hardly fall as above.) 

Individuals composing society could for practical purposes be 
graded as above as respects : health ; industriousness ; thrift ; 
observance of laws ; temperance ; interest or success in family- 
building ; political intelligence ; moral character ; practical ac- 
tivity in community politics ; sociability ; religious life ; interest 
in art; inteiest in (specified type of) literature; attitude to- 
wards jury duty; etc. (In every case, of course, accurate defi- 
nitions or at least description — with illustrative examples — is 
presupposed.) 

Again, individuals could be graded on the basis of algebraic 
sums of certain qualities : e.g., a man ranked A in thrift, D in 
moral character, B in devotion to family, and C as a voter 
might be given a composite grade of B or C according to the 
weight and importance attached to these various qualities. 
4. For many practical purposes, analysis of the qualities of the "B 
grade" man of 25-35 (or other age period) will give the most satisfactory 
points of departure in defining objectives in education. (Of course, once 
having defined the qualities of B grade men to-day we may determine 
that the B grade man of the next decade or two shall in specific re- 
spects and degrees be better; here we would consciously provide for pro- 
gress.) 

o. In planning for the vocational education of prospective car- 
penters we would take and grade (on basis of weekly wage, — 
better, yearly income) all carpenters. We would then ascertain 
common qualities of the B grade carpenters. Then classify 
these qualities according as they are producible by direct edu- 
cation or controlled by-education, after which detailed program 
of industrial education in carpentry could be elaborated. 
b. To obtain basis for constructive program of homemaking 
education, let us take 100 homemakers, ages 30 to 40, of normal 
type, e.g., having no servant help, having three to five children, 
living in detached houses — much the most common type of 
homemaker in America. Thirty of our hundred we rank as of 



54 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

B grade. These now keep fairly good homes. What powers, 
qualities, technical knowledges, skills do they now possess? 
How did they reach this point? Could their present attainments 
have been achieved (under a better system of education) more 
expeditiously, more economically, more surely? 

c. Similarly could we ascertain in some degree what secondary 
school science and mathematics should be taught to prospective 
engineers by analysis of needs of B grade engineers now? 
Could we in the same manner derive standards of practical (if 
not cultural) objectives for teaching of modern languages? 

d. In providing programs of civic education for specified social 
groups where conditions from generation to generation arc 
fairly static we could analyze in detail civic virtues and vices 
now common to adults 30 to 50 (for example, small farmers in 
upper Mississippi Valley states). Presumably the "B grade" 
among these (by civic standards) show a large preponderance 
of civic virtues (in terms of degree, usually, rather than of kind) 
over vices. Hence first purposive aim of school might be to in- 
crease number who in next generation would be of this quality; 
next, to add some specific new degree or kind of civic virtue 
to all. 

5. Determination of social policies whence specific educational objectives 
must be derived is not usually the responsibility of educators — some- 
thing they often forget. Partly as slow social precipitates, partly as in- 
ventions (or at least formulations) of leaders, social policies (towards 
realizing new or more ample measures of such "values" as security, 
wealth, freedom, health, righteousness, stock, knowledge, beauty, socia- 
bility, etc.) come to educators as social demands for specific educational 
procedures. 

a. The history of education abounds in examples. Note how mod- 
ern demands for better health, better vocational competency, a 
more "protected" childhood, readiness for (military) defence, 
and the like produce constantly new educational demands. 



CHAPTER V 
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 

The possible specific objectives of education are almost numberless. For 
practical purposes it is important that these be grouped into classes, gener- 
al divisions, or other workable groupings, to the end that in each group 
will be found common elements of purpose or of method, 

a. A concrete or specific objective determines a detailed course of 
procedure adapted only to the achievement of that objective. 
Naturally, these objectives will differ greatly in magnitude (as 
measured in terms of time, energy, or attention required for 
their mastery). For example: to acquire a speaking knowledge 
of Spanish, a working knowledge of trigonometry, or a speci- 
fied degree of mastery of carpentry, or stenography, could be 
described as large objectives; but within these, detailed ob- 
jectives — mastery of certain verb irregularities in Spanish, use 
of logarithms in trigonometry, skill in use of slide rule, or 
special spelling for stenographers. 

In educational practice, the most specific objectives for 
practical purposes are indicated by the teaching units employed 
— the question and answer of the catechetical method, the 
lesson, the topic, the project, the exercise, etc. Each one of 
these is assumed to give a stone to the total structure of knowl- 
edge, skill or other habituation, ideal complex, or appreciation 
complex, which it is designed to build. (When once the value 
and general character of large objectives have been determined, 
it becomes the urgent business of educators to define detailed 
objectives; otherwise serious loss of effort becomes inevitable.) 

1. Earliest groupings of conscious objectives of by-education and direct 
education were naturally along sex lines, (a) In clan and tribal life, after 
the "infant" period spent by all children with women, boys were isolated 
and prepared for initiation — usually taking place about 16. For each sex, 
education (largely on the basis of imitation) was, during adolescence, 
directed towards well-established traditional ends. (Goodsell, Tardc, 
Dewey and Tufts, Sutherland.) 

2. The city-state, the kingdom, and the empire along with many other 
social features of post-barbaric society seems to have rested on conquest 
of one population by another. 

a. Hence appear forms of education adapted to various social 
classes or castes: for warrior caste (Sparta, Athens, Persia, 
Samurai, knighthood) ; for "leisure" class (often a courtship, 

55 



56 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

civic or property holding class derived from the warrior caste — 
cf. Athens, aristocracy of period of Louis XIV, modern Eng- 
lish aristocracy) ; for governing class (cf. Rome, education of 
princes at all stages, Englisih public schools) ; for various oc- 
cupational classes — priesthoods, trade guilds, entertainers, 
scholars (cf. almost any period in history). (Here appear be- 
ginnings of socially purposive \ocational education.) (Add 
examples from history of education.) 

3. With development of attempts at universal education, classification 
of objectives on basis of age, maturity, or intellectual development of 
learners, appears. 

a. Examples, infant schools, kindergartens, day nurseries, dames' 
schools, primary schools, elementary schools, graded grammar 
schools, academies, colleges, universities. (Add examples.) 

4. Similarly specific objectives, singly or grouped, give types of schools: 
Bible classes, spelling schools, singing schools, dancing classes, schools 
for deportment, finishing schools, (Latin) grammar schools, fitting 
schools (for college), correspondence schools (for specified subjects), 
language schools, vocational schools, etc. (cf. endless examples in any 
large commercial city). 

5. Early reflections about educational psychology produced numerous 
attempts to classify educational objectives according to particular "general 
powers" of mind and spirit to be educated, e.g., physical education, edu- 
cation of will, spiritual (or religious) education. 

a. Some of these categories, e.g., physical education and moral 
education, are still extensively used. But: "education of the 
will" is now used only in the literature of educational mysti- 
cism; no satisfactory boundaries have been set respectively to 
(or relationships indicated between) moral education, ethical 
education, spiritual education (or education of the spiritual 
nature) and religious education. For practical purposes, these 
are also largely "mystical" generalizations. (Analyze practical 
objections to: "intellectual education," "education of the 
emotions," and even to "moral education," as descriptive heads.) 

6. With modern recognition of the value of play have arisen vague 
categories of "education through play" and (presumably) education 
through work. 

a. This differentiation is capable of extension : education through 
pupil's self -direction (in propitious environment) of his natural 
or spontaneous learning instincts and impulses; and education 
through external (social) direction of his activities towards 
predetermined ends. ("Natural" vs. artificial, informal vs. 
formal, spontaneous vs. direct, etc.) (Corresponds in part to 
alpha-beta classification below.) (111. from Boy Scout and 
other "club" education.) 



SPECIAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 57 

7. With modern recognition of educative significance of agencies other 
than school comes vague classification of objectives on the basis of agen- 
cies offering direct or by-education. 

a. Most conspicuous of these are : home ; school ; church ; shop 
(generic for all forms of participation in productive activity in- 
cluding farm, office, shipboard, house) ; playground (including 
street association); club; press; stage (including moving 

picture); library; museum; police. 

b. Note that of the foregoing: school, library, museum and police 
only are (in America) under public direction or complete con- 
trol; stage and press are necessarily commercialized; home, 
church, shop, clubs and the usual playground have other than 
educative as primary functions, hence their (secondary, inci- 
dental) educative functions must be variable, accidental, badly 
directed (in fact education is a by-product). 

8. The most serviceable classification, for the present, is based, first 
upon grouping of all results of education and by-education (superimposed 
upon the products of heredity and material environment) as seen in quali- 
ties and powers of individuals, under four m^ain heads : (o) physical 
(those primarily associated with health, strength, longevity, endurance, 
etc) ; (b) vocational (those associated with capacity for productive work, 
service, including the minors of health, social ideal, personal culture that 
are specifically significant in particular vocations) ; (c) social (those 
associated primarily with successful group living, including moral habits, 
moral conformity, civic initiative, possession and use of ethical ideals and 
standards, etc.) ; and (d) cultural (including stimulation and develop- 
ment of intellectual and aesthetic interests, — in music, literature, science, 
plastic art, dancing, travel, history, general knowledge, sociability, — 
establishment of hobbies or avocational interests, refinements of social be- 
havior beyond the point required for group participation, etc.). 

a. Define: "cultural education"; "liberal education"; erudition; 

scholarship ; "the well-informed man." 

b. What is "the education of a gentleman"? What is educa- 

tion "for living"? for "leisure"? 

c. The above groups overlap, but it is contended each has a 

focal area, overlapping exists only at margins. 

9. In second place, a cross-sectional division of all of these products 
(under 8 above) into two divisions, according as they are or should be : 
(a) the results of "natural" (i.e., spontaneous, untrammelled develop- 
mental, appreciative learning) ; or (b) the results of systematically di- 
rected learning towards foreseen goals in adult participation in civilized 
life. These classes are named hereafter respectively beta and alpha ob- 
jectives. 

a. Make two classes of objectives of an ordinary life's activities 
on lines here suggested. 



58 



EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 



b. Examples of beta objectives: all the varied products of play; 
of reading for general interest; of travel, exploration, social 
commingling; of group life for play purposes (gangs, cliques, 
fraternities) ; of Boy Scout activities; of volunteer activities in 
response to ideals of teachers; the learning of the vernacular 
and numberless other arts under stimulus of social environment 
(by-education) or the school. 

c. Examples of alpha objectives: the formal subjects of the schools, 
— -usually; the recognized vocations, — usually; many cultural 
lines when pursued for distinct motives of achievement (art, 
music, literature, history, dancing) or distinction, 

10. Tabular form for classification of objectives, then, would be as 
follows : 



Forms of Development 
AND Education 

I. Physical 



II. V^ocational 



IIL Social 



TV. Cultural 



Alpha Obectives 

c. Corrective training 

b. Organized knowledge of 
special fields of hygiene 

c. etc. 

a. Practice in occupation 

b. Study of related tech- 
nical knowledge, occupa- 
tion 

a. Approved school be- 

havior 

b. Organized knowledge, 

state government 

c. Essential facts of Amer- 
ican history 

«. Elem. school arts 

b. Foreign language 

c. Execution of music 

d. etc. 



Beta Objectives 

a. Play — varied forms 

b. Readings in sanitation 
and hygiene 

c. etc. 

a. Readings, excursions, 
etc., in vocational soci- 
ology of occupation 



a. School self-government 

b. Boy Scout work 

c. Readings, etc., in social 
science 

d. etc. 



a. General reading 

b. General science 

c. Musical appreciation 

d. etc. 



11. Other classification of objectives based as above on results to be 
realized in the individual, in part for himself and in part for society, 
follows somewhat different lines. The following are proposals: 

a. It is proposed not to give a separate head to physical education 
— requiring that health, physical well-being, shall be inclusive 
of all others and as a basal condition to them. Similar proposals 
are to make (a) cultural, and (b) social (moral, civic) rela- 
tively more inclusive. 

(1) But for practical purposes at least, discrimination is indis- 
pensable — and at least some of the objectives under each 
head are of equivalent importance. 

b. Several provide a special head for "family education" — all that 
is designed to promote man's efficiency in organizing and main- 
taining the family. 

(1) This is a vague and unduly inclusive objective. 



SPECIAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 59 

c. One would provide special subdivision for the ethical. 

(1) But this fails to recognize that the final essence of the 
"ethical" is found in "behavior," "conduct." 

12. The above grouping does not provide in a very satisfactory way for 
placing of those studies that are fundamentally "instrumental" — to purely 
cultural as well as to vocational studies, e.g., reading, writing, spelling, 
mathematics, foreign language. 

13. The classification gives no special place to studies designed chiefly 
for mental training, e.g., mathematics, Latin, mental arithmetic, science 
(for scientific method). Assumed that best doctrine favors provision 
for mental training as a by-product of all forms of learning, and that 
no studies have an exceptional or unique value for "mental training," 
"mind discipline," etc. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION 

1. It is sociologically justifiable to speak of the "evolution" of a social 
institution or mechanism, e.g., government, nationality, marriage, agri- 
culture, philosophy, the Methodist Church, slavery. Origins of the insti- 
tution are to be found in human needs. Primitive beginnings are invented 
or "grow" from "accidental variations." Competition is encountered, 
weak forms are destroyed, well supported forms thrive, and protective 
mechanisms are developed. The institution becomes part of the "social 
inheritance," being transmitted as generations of individuals come and 
go. In general it may be assumed : 

a. That any institution that becomes well established and deeply 
rooted, serves valuable ends for the group cherishing it during 
its earlier and vital period (although group may represent only 
a section, caste, or class of the total genetic society of the area 
affected) ; but that 

b. Often an institution acquires momentum (especially in eras of 
custom control as against scientific control) which causes it to 
survive long after its usefulness has diminished or ended, thus 
necessitating destructive conflict against it. (Illustrate from 
slavery, "divine right" of kings, polygamy, primogeniture, trial 
by ordeal, corporal punishment in schools, Gothic architecture, 
Chinese cues, "cupping and bleeding," dogma, caste, Whig 
party, "paganism," transportation by sailing vessels, quill pens, 
mental arithmetic, Greek, ornate handwriting. What are prob- 
lematical elements in future of : capital punishment, the "wage 
system," mental training through "simples," appointment of 
judges, display advertising, burial of dead, "nationalism," full 
economic responsibilities of widows, metaphysics?) 

2. The survival, and no less the advancement, of any considerable 
genetic group (advancement in numbers, powers, prestige, economy) is of 
course conditioned by the degree of its attainment of certain fundamental 
social values such as security, conquest of the means of livelihood, per- 
petuation of stocks, "large group" cohesiveness, etc. The conscious or 
unconscious pursuit of these ends gives rise to arts, customs, conquest, 
worship, institutions to insure justice, property, acculturation, and the 
rest as means to the ends of survival and "life more abundantly." The 
circumstances, as well as certain obscure internal or subjective resultants 
of preceding evolution, of any given people may cause preponderant im- 
portance to be attached for a period to one or a few of these means. 

60 



EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION 6l 

a. Biologists assert that among animal forms, evolution along one 
line — horns of the Irish elk, tusks of mastodon, size of whale — 
may proceed to lengths of becoming destructive of the species. 
Probably social analogies exist where excessive pursuit of con- 
quest, worship, wealth, beauty or progeny becomes destructive. 

3. It is natural that a people or a group, a class or party of a people, 
should incorporate into the purposes of its education and its by-education, 
the pursuit of those ends it then deems valuable. Some noteworthy ex- 
amples are : 

a. The use by primitive groups much given to fighting, of "ordeal 
initiations." 

b. The use of prolonged religious training by religious guilds. 

c. The use of military education by conquerors subsisting as 
rulers, land owners, specialized defenders, and decorative or 
leisure castes. 

d. Systematic vocational education by economic guilds. 

e. Systematic acculturation where a virile people fall heir to, or can 
import, the culture of a more advanced people. (Rome from 
Greece, Japan from Occident, modern European nations from 
Rome, Constantinople from Athens, United States from 
Europe.) 

/. Systematic education in literacy for Protestant worship. 

g. Systematic education towards literacy and other ends for citi- 
zenship under general suffrage. 

h. Systematic education of the disinherited (orphans, offenders, 
subnormals, occupationless). 

i. The conservation, advancement and transmission of culture by 
"cultured" group — literati, intelligenzia, gentlemen, scholars, 
naturalists, scientists, the "erudite," and, at times, by priest- 
hoods, teaching guilds, officialdom, aristocracies, professions — 
become often a self-imposed function of selected individuals. 

4. Processes and stages in the evolution of educational aims, means, 
methods and administrative mechanisms are to be found in the "histories" 
of education. (See chapter bibliographies in Monroe, Textbook in the 
History of Education.) There needs yet to be written a sociological work 
describing and interpreting the general features of the evolution of edu- 
cation, as found, for example : 

a. When peoples in savage stages develop initiations, legends, pen- 
alties, taboos, mechanisms of suggestion, ceremonials and the 
like as means of limiting, stimulating, directing and crystal- 
lizing into habits, ideals, and valuations (appreciations) the in- 
stincts of youth or subordinate elders towards approved forms 
of conformity, skill, enterprise, culture. (Letourneau's L' Evo- 
lution de I'Education is suggestive here.) 



62 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

b. When castes or caste-like groups, created by conquest, racial 
intermingling, religious differentiation, vocational specialization, 
each develop elaborate educational mechanisms under competi- 
tive pressure to conserve and increase their peculiar social in- 
heritance, and when, especially in pre-scientific stages of social 
evolution, these take hard shape in customs, rituals, faiths, 
dogmas, laws, "red tape," and creeds. (From this point of 
vantage should be interpreted very much of : Persian, Athenian, 
Spartan, and Roman education — ^physical and military, civic, 
artistic, cultural — that has record in history; the "guild" educa- 
tion of the Middle Ages — in the broad sense that chivalry, the 
church, the crafts, and traders each had their own types of 
guilds, which occasionally blended, as in the composite groups 
originating in the crusades ; the modern survivals of "private," 
parochial, "military," and "finishing schools" ; and probably 
some of the more monopolized and crystallized products of 
eras of rapid acculturation — e.g., the Renaissance.) 

c. When social evolution gives the state (or nation) such promi- 
nence and responsibilities as to necessitate public control (in- 
cluding, usually, support) of education and enforcement of 
universal minimum standards, during which caste and other 
group qualities yield to suffrage, universal literacy, spread of 
scientific thinking, democratic aspirations. (Herefrom interpret 
educational accompaniments of nationalistic democratic and 
economic evolution in 19th century United States, France, Ger- 
many, Great Britain, and Japan, together with struggles of 
contemporary Russia, China, Italy, Peru and the like.) 

d. When mechanisms of guild or state education tend by pre- 
mature or excessive functioning to over-contract, over-modify, 
or over-work the native powers and "small group" potentialities 
of children, resulting in "reform" movements launched to protect 
the "rights" of children to "childhood." (Thus vogue is given 
to Port Royalists, Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, 
Froebel, Dickens, Spencer, Parker, Hall, Dewey. Note re- 
actions against over-developed and premature military, church, 
and apprenticeship training, indenture of orphans, early commit- 
ment to boarding school, imprisonment of juvenile offenders, 
dominance of "external" examinations, competitions, "payment 
by results," drudgery of the "formal subjects." There appear 
school play, "doctrine of interests," the kindergarten, scouting, 
hand work, etc.) 

f. When "new systems" of education reach sufficient development 
to produce far-reaching conflicts over aims, means, methods and 
administrative agencies. Here include conflicts about : human- 
ism, Jesuitism, realism, classicism, science, vocational education. 

/. Finally when a nation seeks forcibly the acculturation of a sepa- 



EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION 63 

rate and subject people by direct or indirect methods (always 
aspired to, and often practiced, under imperialism) through 
substitution of language, education of leaders, control of stand- 
ards of schooling, etc. (Rome in subject nations, Great Britain 
in India, United States in Philippines, Germany in Poland, 
etc.) 
References : See chapter bibliographies in Monroe's History of Edu- 
cation. 



CHAPTER VII 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION: SOCIOLOGICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND CONDITIONS 

1. Physical well-being in the individual commonly connotes : develop- 
ment in size and functioning of bodily organs appropriate to age, sex, 
race, habitat, etc. ; and possession of powers of conserving health and 
strength towards normal requirements of vocation, advancing years, 
family life and general happiness. 

Heredity in man as in animal and plant life provides self -functioning 
mechanisms for fairly complete physical development (except occasional 
abnormalities), which is achieved if nurture is right and sufficient. (Include 
under nurture not only food, rest, shelter, and weather stimuli, but also 
play, companionship, incentives to varied instinctive functioning, etc.) 
Hence if man through long ages preserved same environment and had 
imposed upon him same necessities for work, etc., he should possess the 
same normal health as plants and animals in their wild state. 

But man has, much more than other life, (a) shifted from one environ- 
ment to another; and (b) imposed upon himself artificial conditions of 
numberless kinds. Hence in development and in conservation of health 
he has to seek special correctives or suffer consequences of mal-develop- 
ment and mal-adjustment. Problems of "good and evil" in matters of 
physical (no less than of moral) soundness result from inability of the 
hereditary mechanism to keep pace in evolution with the new requirements 
imposed upon it. The individual adaptiveness of the Ibodily mechanism to 
new conditions (of habitat, climate, food, work, etc.) is not yet clearly 
known, but is obviously greatly affected by age at which new conditions 
are imposed. (See Huntington, E., Civilisation and Climate; and Crile, 
G. W., Man — An Adaptive Mechanism.) Nor is it known how rapidly 
evolutionary adaptation takes place through elimination of unfit types 
under new conditions (negroes in cold climates, Europeans in America, 
landsman at sea, etc.). 

2. Under physical education therefore are to be included all those forms 
of control of environment, direction of activities, instruction, and training, 
whether half -conscious in customs of by-education or wholly purposive 
in direct education, the expected outcomes of which are chiefly, first, good 
physical development, health and working powers, and, second, the 
knowledge, ideals and habits for the future conservation of these. Spe- 
cific objectives are now found in : supervision and control of nurture ; 
provision of facilities for play; prevention of infection or other condi- 
tions of disease ; instruction in hygiene ; physical training, etc. 

64 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 65 

The fundamental problems of current physical education include: 
what are the deviations from the normal hereditary standards of physical 
development which civilized life entails; how far and in what respects 
can training or habituation provide compensation for these imposed 
deviations ? 

3. Examination of the conditions imposed by civilization shows that man 
has largely artificialized his habitat, as well as living and working con- 
ditions, especially along these lines : 

a. Primate ancestors of man were probably vegetarian. There 

followed a long period when he was omnivorous, with sections 
heavily dependent on fish and flesh diet. Hence, extensive 
development of teeth, jaws, alimentary canal. Then came the 
era of cooked foods, concentrated foods, partly predigested 
foods. Effects in under use of teeth, alimentary canal. Prob- 
lem: to what extent should children repeat ancestral use of 
coarse foods? 

b. Hereditary mechanism of body in several respects still adapted 
to quadrupedal (or quadrumanal) life. Man's erect posture 
needed to free the hands, to hold infants, and, perhaps, to 
carry brain. Resulting complications in difficulties of child- 
bearing, liability to rupture, foot and spine troubles, etc. 
Possible that use of chairs for sitting adds to the difficulties. 
Problem of fixed postures for children. 

c. Ancestral man probably hairy, then hairless (possible effects of 
selections, sexual; vermin-born disease, etc.), then clothed. 
Clothing seems to "increase tax on lungs and kidneys." Prob- 
lem of minimum clothing, open-air sleeping, etc., for children. 
"Natural" aspects of bathing, work to the point of perspira- 
tion, stimulation of body through varying temperatures (ventila- 
tion), effects of extreme variations in climate, of indoor work- 
ing, etc. 

d. Primitive man had localized habitat, hence "picked up" rela- 
tively few pathogenic bacterial species. Selection in many cases 
doubtless brought immunity or lessened virulence, or species 
disappeared except in limited areas where it remained endemic. 
But exploration, conquest and commerce distribute widely bac- 
terial species heretofore local and among peoples heretofore 
immune, (cf. Cholera, plague, measles and small^pox (among 
Indians), parasitic hookworm.) Man in temperate zones must 
fight scores and in tropics even more bacterial diseases. Pos- 
sibilities of prevention: (1) by extirpating (or closely limiting) 
pathogenic species (possibilities in plague, yellow fever, cholera, 
"malaria, typhus, typhoid, syphilis, tuberculosis) ; (2) by making 
body resistant through natural development (possibilities in 
tuberculosis, pneumonia, colds, measles) ; (3) by artificial im- 
munization (small-pox, typhoid) ; (4) early use of antiseptic 



66 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

or curative measures (hookworm, diphtheria, infant blindness, 
wound infection, etc.) ; and (5) prevention of communication 
by intelligent individual action (personal contacts, use of 
common vessels, laundry, food inspection, home antisepsis), 
(a) Systematic education towards successful combat of bac- 
terial disease offers possibilities of large social returns 
(of. Irving Fisher, Hutchinson.) Part of this instruction 
under physical education, part under social education (civic 
action in sanitation). Problem here very like earlier 
problems of extirpating wolves, poisonous serpents, rats, 
vermin, — knowledge, individual effort, social effort. Prob- 
lem of "natural immunization" to chicken-pox, measles, 
whooping cough, etc. 

e. Primitive man probably evolved eye suited to most frequent 
use at fairly long ranges. Heavy strain put on hereditary 
mechanism by primitive handicrafts ; and still greater by mod- 
ern use of printing. Problems : mechanically aiding eyes of 
children; of increasing visibility of short range work; and of 
increasing, in early years, extent of easy long range use (Boy 
Scout activities, etc.). 

/. Civilized man uses artificial heat extensively. Effect of this in 
preventing full development of bodily capacity in children not 
known. Primitive man in temperate and colder zones doubt- 
less developed bodily mechanism that thrived (within limits) 
on exposure to extremes and even suffering therefrom. (Prob- 
lem of the physical mollycoddles, the softened girl or coop- 
woman.) 

g. Primitive man doubtless lived much in open air, with abun- 
dance of oxygen, breezes, little organic emanation in air. 
Character, extent and duration of cave-dwelling period not well 
known, but probably much adaptation to sleeping (but not 
working) in crowded, unventilated cells at this time produced. 
Civilization produces necessity of working in rooms (not re- 
quired even of caveman). Recent hypotheses as to need of 
ventilation chiefly to provide for escape of heat and varied 
stimulus rather than to prevent breathing air with high con- 
tent of CO2 and organic matter. Problems of open air for 
sleeping and school work. 

h. Prolongation of infancy (Fiske) of man had effected post- 
ponement of maturity of mating impulse until about age six- 
teen ; except that warmth, abundance of stimulating food and 
deficient physical activity may cause prematurity, also, even 
under normal conditions, the young experience foreshadowing 
of sex impulses, "hauntings," even possible neuroses (Freud). 
But conditions of civilized life tend to impose long postpone- 
ment of approved mating (marriage) — in occidental countries, 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION fyj 

for "working" classes, 20-24, for "middle" classes, 24-30. Hence 
period 15 — to marriage is especially characterized by problems 
of conservation of health as affected by sex life (and conti- 
nence), prevention of pathological manifestations (individual 
and social), and conservation of aesthetic and social ideals 
capable of being interwoven with finer manifestations and 
irradiations of sex instinct in love, appreciation of beauty, 
family ideals and religion. (Bigelow, Havelock, Ellis.) 

(1) Problems involved classify in part under hygiene (physi- 
cal education) and in part under morality (especially 
moral ideals — social education.) 

(2) While early mating (in socially approved, or in tabooed 
forms) has been common among primitive peoples, it is 
also certain that for long periods and for considerable 
classes of men continence even to advanced years has 
been assured through dominance of ideals of physical ex- 
cellence for demands of war; also through prevalence of 
religious ideals. Note also very general social insistence 
on continence as pre-condition and concurrent condition 
for approved marriage, especially for women. 

(3) Problems of sex education involve at least (a) knowl- 
edge towards prudential ends; (&) knowledge and ideals 
towards influential motives for continence and idealism ; 
and (c) abundant physical activity, disregard of physical 
ease (or softness), and unstimulating foods, to counter 
development of sex impulses. Probably early development 
in the mind of youth of convictions as to harmful pos- 
sibilities of broodings, day-dreams, etc., will prove helpful. 
On the other hand, unsound valuations of certain semi- 
normal manifestations to be guarded against. (Bigelow.) 

(4) Assuming co-education to be so conducted as to pre- 
clude anti-social developments (thoughts, speech, co- 
quetries), its probalble values as a means of normalizing 
extra-marital relations of the sexes should be examined. 
Probabilities that potencies of co-education in this direc- 
tion should be further developed. 

(5) Development of social education designed correctly to 
evaluate family life, each individual's potential contribu- 
tion to same, and elucidating conditions of soundness in, 
ought to make valuable contributions. 

Primitive man worked spasmodically, intensely at times, and 
with frequent and irregular intermissions. Perhaps women 
first developed routine work. Later slaves were held to long 
routine work; then, as condition of economic survival, almost 
all workers except soldiers and "leisure class." All routine 



68 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

work therefore imposes heavy strain on physical powers, (cf. 
Condemnation of Adam, dreams of freedom from toil, etc.) 

(1) Probaibdlity that hereditary mechanism has become so 
adapted that a substantial amount of routine work is 
necessary to full physical development. 

(2) Conditions of maximum productivity in physical work 
not clearly understood (cf. controversies as to eight- 
hour day; motion studies — Gilbreth; reports of indus- 
trial accidents ; effects of routine labor on the young) . 

(3) Effects of routine labor, long prolonged, on plastic youth. 

Series of special problems. 

(4) Note problems of "borrowed" or "derived" motive for 

endurance of distasteful routine (or drudgery) — from 
fear of direct penalty, fear of want or remote disap- 
proval, desire for reward or wage, ambition, etc. 

y. Under modern conditions, physical organism of man subject 
to peculiar strains of the kind called "nervous" in contrast 
with more manual or muscular activities of primitive life. 

(1) Note whole classes of "brain workers" and of others 
(clerks, technical workers, readers) who are taxed men- 
tally or nervously by their work. Probability that this 
involves exceptional kinds of strain to be prepared for 
by previous adequate physical development of primitive 
order. 
k. Woman, under primitive social conditions, is obliged to work 
no less hard, — often harder in terms of drudgery — than man. 
But with the appearance of a conquering class, governing 
aristocracy, then hereditary leisure class, finally holders of 
capital or large producers capable of "conspicuous waste" 
(Veblen), arises a demand for women to grace, decorate, or 
embellish life for commanding men. To preserve decorative 
qualities such women are freed from toil and natural growth 
restricted in many respects (small feet — of Chinese women. — 
hands, waists, soft skins, long hair, rounded contours,— often 
to be had only from half -arrested muscular development, coop- 
women) ; while "elegant" or "refined" occupations, not vul- 
garly useful, are prized (embroidery, dilettante art). Hence, 
from early age "hard play" and then "work" is taboo. Result 
is the production of powers and qualities characteristic of 
parasitic forms. 

Actual leisure class never very large, but its example in 
evolving a class of decorative women (and thereby intensify- 
ing and giving persistent predominance to feminine qualities 
making aesthetic appeal at age of mating) spreads into all 
j, , classes where, under conditions of production with the aid of 



\ 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 69 

capital and results of invention, men capable of producing con- 
siderable surplus to raise a family are found. Hence, wide- 
spread ideal favoring general development of decorative wo- 
men. Results in America seen in vast numbers of women, 
ages 12 to 60, competing in decorating the person with cloth- 
ing and jewels, in painting the skin, favoring arts of mani- 
cure and hairdresser, in cultivating as primary ends grace of 
person and arts of expression and display given by "finishing 
school" or prized in society. Physical organism doubtless de- 
teriorates in the process, becoming incapacitated in large part 
for productive work, resistance to disease or weakness, child 
bearing and child nurture. 

(1) With rising standards of living in America and demo- 
cratic society, almost all women aspire to be like the 
leisure class, decorative women. But note counteracting 
ideals of household arts teaching, of suffrage movement, 
of women educated in co-educational schools. 



(2) If girls were reared exactly as boys, to what extent 
would they show a different or weaker physique? Ques- 
tion not easily answered but suggestions obtainable from 
facts as to physique of European peasant women, women 
of Sparta, Amazon revolt, etc. 

(3) Extent to which excessive specialization of women for 
decorative purposes results in sterility, non-functioning 
of nursing organs, great pain in childbirth, pervasive 
aversion to children in general, — and hence in destruc- 
tively low birth rate and poor mothering, not known, but 
doubtless critical in occidental societies (cf. studies of 
diminishing birthrate, especially in "middle class" society). 

(4) A difficult problem involved in combining results of 
ideals of aesthetically attractive womanhood with results 
of requirements for adequate physical development. 
Some signs that aesthetic valuations are even now chang- 
ing (ridicule of the mid- Victorian woman, premium on 
the athletic, outdoor girl). 

4. Contemporary achievements in physical education (or rather in po- 
tentialities), therefore, have been due to several "social forces." 

a. The necessities of war (and the related "chase") have always 
forced to the attention of peoples, even the very primitive, the 
desirability of physical "fitness" for combat, endurance, with- 
standing of pain. Here play motives combine with training and 
give sports, athletics, gymnastics, horseback riding and even 
mountain climbing and swimming, historically cherished by the 
governing class or their "gentleman" descendants. Mili- 
tary training even yet involves arduous physical training of 



70 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

novices selected for physical fitness (paralleled in no other 
calling, and only remotely imitated in priesthoods, locomo- 
tive driving, policing, and marine service). 

b. The healing of the sick, evolving from beginnings in magic, 
has eventually led to modern medicine, with its numerous 
achieved results in cure, and especially prevention of disease, 
and its mastery of ideals and methods for further advance. 

c. Outgrowth of medicine has been sanitation (including quaran- 
tine against speed of disease) and hygiene, in both of which 
recent evolution has been rapid. 

d. Numberless sporadic attempts consciously to conserve or pro- 
mote physical fitness (apart from urgency of war pressure), 
characterize modern life, but few appear yet to have substan- 
tial foundations. These include: (1) Systematic "muscular 
training" in schools — calesthenics, gymnastics, posture drill, 
breathing drill, hardening exercises, etc. (2) Furtherance of 
the cooperative and competitive play instincts of adolescent 
youth into "directed" sports, athletics, etc. (3) Promotion of 
physical "exercise" for adults in sedentary vocations, as well 
as related avocations — golf, boating, riding, hunting, gardening. 
(4) Physical culture especially for those influenced by aes- 
thetic appreciations of bodily grace of motion, beauty of form 
and color, etc. (5) Numberless faiths as to specific dietary and 
environmental regulations — vegetarianism, barefootedness, open 
air sleeping, sexual abstention, breathing, mental relaxation, etc. 

e. The public is becoming rapidly informed as to costs of disease, 
possibilities of prevention, the bearing of health on general 
happiness, and the possibilities of "socialized" medicine. Hence 
widespread interest in municipal and national hygiene and 
sanitation, development of physical education in schools, etc. 
Probably financial aid can be extensively forthcoming if valid 
programs can be devised. 

5. But, in most departments of physical education, knowledge (beyond 
beliefs and fads) is yet very incomplete and obscure. The orientation, 
if not the objectives, of these phases now fairly acceptable; (a) instruc- 
tion of hygiene; (b) health inspection; (c) provision of facilities for 
play; (d) conservation of physical well-being under artificial conditions 
imposed by education. But the following represent problems as to 
which faiths now held are clearly of doubtful validity: 

a. What are optimum standards which should, for given ages, 
either sex, and ascertained hereditary bases, control conscious 
procedure towards permitting, encouraging or (by training) 
forcing developing of; particular muscles or coordination of 
muscles; resistance to cold, wet, heat; specific forms of bodily 
agility; specific forms of endurance; abilities to "deal with" 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 7I 

difficult foods; resistance to communicable diseases; resist- 
ance to fatigue; specific postures and other forms of graceful 
carriage? As variants, what should be standards in training 
persons of given age, sex, probable future vocation, and as- 
certained hereditary basis to run, jump, swim, wrestle, box, 
creep, climb, endure pains, stand erect, etc.? It is submitted 
that nearly all prevailing faiths here are obscurely derived from 
military ideals and have no necessary relationship to contempo- 
rary vocations or living conditions. Confusion here is furthered 
by fact that, as now organized, gymnastics, athletics, and sports 
apply the principle "to them that hath, shall be given; and from 
them that hath not shall be taken away even that which they 
have." 

The functions of physical training as now given in schools 
appear to be of two types — recreative and developmental. (By 
"developmental" is here meant attainment of new powers, in- 
creased size, more complex coordinations; by "recreative," 
providing for any organ enough functioning to prevent de- 
terioration or harm from disuse, when work or living condi- 
tions normally leaves it passive.) But the two ends seem con- 
fused, and each without standards of objective. For sedentary 
workers, should physical recreation be concentrated, intensive? 
If so, why not out-of-doors activities instead of gymnasium 
and calesthenics? Why not maximum exposure to weather? 
Should not customs, likings, and mechanics of recreation for 
youth be such as will probably carry forward into adult life? 
To what extent is that the case now — tennis, basketball, row- 
ing, football, etc.? Are gymnastics, calesthenics, etc., really 
"developmental" or "corrective"? What is evidence? 

What is the fundamental place of physical work in basic physi- 
cal development (various forms of endurance, disease resistance, 
and pain bearing, as well as strengths, and agilities). Is "work" 
older or younger, in racial evolution, than play? Is it not proba- 
ble that the human body is so endowed as to require substantial 
amounts of physical work at age levels — 8 to 12, 12 to 15, 15 to 
18, 18 to 21, and the like to develop adequately against the 
needs of adult life? Do home and school conditions require 
or permit genuine physical work up to 18 years of age now 
for middle class girls? What is the probable health future 
of a person who from age six to eighteen really works hard 
mentally, but only plays physically? Does available evidence 
seem to point to probability that in highly specialized (factory, 
commercial), sedentary and other types of work supposedly 
imposing heavy "nervous" strains, the person who has laid 
preliminary foundations in "hard" physical work is at a decided 
advantage as to health, longevity? What, on the other hand, 



72 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

is probable health future of persons accustomed to heavy work, 
who at age thirty, for example, enter upon nervous or seden- 
tary work— typing, bookkeeping, etc.— and find few opportuni- 
ties to continue "work" use of larger muscles? (Of course 
study of problems here suggested requires genuine distinctions 
between work and play— distinctions sentimentalists find it re- 
pugnant to make.) 

d. What is the place of the "gymnasium" in sound scheme of 
physical education? It is now largely a "traditional" agency 
— since its highly artificial apparatus is less valued than form- 
erly, even by old fashioned "physical trainers." Examination 
is needed of situations like following: 

One hundred boys, ages 14 to 18, taking regular courses in 
high school. Programs require and permit two hours daily, 
physical training in costume. Adjacent to school are compara- 
tively free streets, and three-acre play-ground. Assume direc- 
tor of training and moderate outdoor equipment, and dressing 
and locker space indoors. Is it (a) necessary or (b) desirable 
that covered space or heated space be provided for activities? 
Why? To what specific ends? For sake of hardening, de- 
velopment, concentrated recreation, why should not all the 
hardy boys of this lot spend their free time in open air in 
varied and strenuous activities in all weathers, keeping warm 
by exertion? After this period, dry rubdown, change into 
warm dry clothes and return to sedentary work. Could ac- 
tivities be devised for rainy, for snowy, and for sleeting 
weather? 

Would this regimen be too severe for boys not vigorous? For 
boys 10 to 14 years of age? For girls, hair protected by bathing 
caps? Is not the gymnasium, often warmed, and rarely well 
ventilated, not a refuge of physical mollycoddles? 

e. What are the functions of the swimming pool? Assume 

people competent to keep clean at home. It is desirable to 
teach swimming. Why the expensive pool, the expensive 
warming and changing of water? Why not an open pool or 
pond or river (except in largest cities) to which learners run 
in bathing costumes in appropriate weather — any time in 
northern states from April IS to November 1? Is it necessary 
or desirable to teach swimming from November 1 to April 15? 
If swimming is to be generally taught, has any one computed 
capital outlay and maintenance for covered pools, changed and 
warmed water, showers? Are not such delicately prepared 
swimming conditions ultimately disastrous to appreciations of 
rugged physical development outdoor life, "roughing it"? Does 
the pool make for "mollycoddling"? 



CHAPTER VIII 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: SOCIOLOGICAL PRE- 
SUPPOSITION AND CONDITIONS 

1. All adult human beings (except rare parasites) must work to live. 
Man has far less precise instinctive equipment towards obtaining a liveli- 
hood than have bees, hawks, beavers, or other animals. Hence he must 
learn to work. But his species builds a social inheritance of useful arti 
and science which each individual must learn. He is also expected to 
learn slowly evolved customs of organizing work — division of labor, 
cooperation, token wages, all that we call thrift and industriousness. 
(Defensive and predatory fighting against animals and other men will 
here be included as productive work.) 

Elders instinctively first lure, then compel youngers to make beginnings 
of work, and youngers instinctively imitate and otherwise try to learn 
working arts. Hence primitive domiciliary and field groups are first 
agencies of vocational education — and are so still for nearly ninety per 
cent of all workers. 

All that conscious or half -conscious suggestion, instruction, and train- 
ing wliich is primarily directed towards producing competency in vo- 
cation will be here called vocational education. Any agency whose 
primary function is to give such education will be called a vocational 
school, e.g., professional colleges, schools of army leadership, stenog- 
raphy, trades and farming. Apprenticeship and the still less organized 
types of vocational training where production is a primary, and educa- 
tion a secondary function will be called by-education, e.g., as on farm, 
shipboard, camp, home, store, shop, army. Apprenticeship (organized) 
is to be distinguished from "pick up" vocational education. 

2. Through vocational arts man produces goods for support of self 
and dependents. But his total productivity at any time and place de- 
pends upon many factors besides personal skill and technical knowledge. 
These include: (a) presence of natural resources — game, nut trees, wild 
grains, domesticated animals, pastures, tillable land, navigable waters, 
forests, mines of clay and metals, coal, water power, fertilizers; (b) 
accumulated knowledge of arts, science, discoveries, customs of work — 
fire, domestication, tillage, sails, pottery making, iron working, printing, 
and the numberless acquisitions of last three centuries ; (c) capital or 
stored wealth for provision of tools, means of work, support of workers 
— tools, ships, roadways, ports, shops, money, credit ; (d) protection or 
social security in enjoyment of product — rights to use property for self 
or chosen associates, to devise bequests, to rent it for gain (interest on 

73 



74 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

capital, etc. — hence protective government and helpful customs towards 
stored wealth) : {e) availability of means of division of labor, exchange 
of commodities, and increase and application of capital — trained leader- 
ship, transportation, banks, agencies of trade, international measures 
and exchange; (/) the general health, strength, intelligence, and social 
nature of the individual worker. Given the foregoing factors, the de- 
gree and kind of vocational education of the individual in relation to 
his native powers determine his productivity. 

Social evolution changes above factors greatly. It adds knowledge 
and thereby multiplies productivity; it multiplies populations beyond 
point of diminishing returns; it raises standards of living; it enhances 
governmental security, but increases taxation therefor. Man ceaselessly 
struggles to produce 7nore with less labor — and at same time he in- 
creases in numbers and in standards of living. 

3. Primitive man works hard but sporadically. Conquest, in advanced 
stages, developed slavery and feudal or serf tenure and thereby en- 
forced routine labor, the conquerors themselves being obliged to main- 
tain persistent guidance, military control, and ceremonial prestige. Or- 
ganization of production — mines, shipboard, factories, tropical farming — 
uses wage system as means of regimentation and persistent application. 

Division of labor is first between sexes, then between old and young, 
then proliferates into numberless trades. Men have naturally superior 
physical mobility and aggressive impulses. Primitive women led in rou- 
tine industries, tillage and domiciliary occupations. To-day young men 
seek the roving, outdoor vocations, women the indoor, sessile vocations. 
Old men give up roving and share in home arts. 

Power driven machinery gives enormous advantages to "quantity pro- 
duction" which is best achieved through "standardized processes" and 
output of "standardized parts." Hence evolve endless specializations of 
labor — from primitive Nile tillage, brickmaking, wall building and boat 
rowing to modern mining, sugar growing, rail transportation, and factory 
production of locomotives, canned fruits and house doors. 

Vocational education must largely follow economic evolution. Primi- 
tive production — still exemplified in home, small farm, seacoast fishing, 
small store, repair shop — can make good use of "pick up" vocational 
education. Highly evolved practical arts bring to great efficiency appren- 
ticeship — which appears at best only where "pairs" of workers engage 
in handicraft pursuits or the real "trades" (best modern example is 
locomotive engineer and fireman). Highly specialized production lessens 
effectiveness of "pick up" vocational training, and destroys apprentice- 
ship. But it differentiates many stages so simple that they can be 
learned in a few hours — ^the semi-skilled occupations of the census- 
maker. 

4. Social efficiency now demands general substitution of direct voca- 
tional education for wasteful "pick up" processes and obsolescent ap- 
prenticeship. Partly to prevent frightful wastefulness of pick-up methods 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 75 

in the "hire and fire" industries; partly to give needed science in farming, 
homemaking, repair trades; and partly to increase or maintain produc- 
tion where increasing populations, rising standards of living and dimin- 
ishing natural resources threaten economic harm, school vocational ed- 
cation has prevailed in professions for years; but its methods for the 
specialized vocations still perplex the educator. 

But without doubt next generation will witness : (a) social provision 
of opportunities for vocational education for all persons; (b) compul- 
sory attendance on specified vocational schools of those who will not or 
cannot elect for themselves (on the same principle as compulsory work 
for vagrants now) ; and (c) scientific guidance of each person towards the 
work he can do best. The following will be among essential conditions 
however : (a) Because of specialization of vocations, vocational schools 
will have often to be located far from homes of students, necessitating 
perhaps subsidizing of travel and boarding (now exemplified in voca- 
tional schools of medicine, military leadership, and teaching). Excep- 
tions will be found in: large cities; areas of localized single types of 
production — homemaking, farming, meat canning, cotton cloth manu- 
facture, (b) Only a portion of the vocational education needed by the 
individual can !be given at outset — especially where he enters the juvenile 
vocations. Much of it will come at ages 18, 22, 26, 30, even 40 as up- 
grading full time, or extension part time training — perhaps even for 
homemaking (at 22-25) and for various forms of real leadership (at 
25-35). (c) The major part of direct general education for the rank 
and file of workers will have to be given before commencement of 
vocational training (age 6 to 16) with requirement that when vocational 
education is begun full working time (eight hours daily) shall be given 
exclusively to it. {d) Where plant or equipment requirements for train- 
ing in practice of vocation are elaborate and expensive, vocational schools 
will have to be located partly or wholly in commercial establishments 
rather than in plants created primarily for school purposes (instances in: 
hospitals for physicians and nurses ; railroads ; banks ; department stores ; 
schools (for teacher training); shoe factories; coal mines; mercantile 
ship; meat packing establishments). 

5. Recency of the "industrial revolution" (due to Inventions, harness- 
ing of natural powers, use of capital, subdivision of occupation, regional 
specialization of production, free migration of workers, etc.) gives rise to 
many social conditions involving problems of social pathology, the solu- 
tion of which must profoundly affect future evolution of vocational 
education. 

a. Does specialized production unduly cramp or deteriorate men 
as to health, "creativeness," "joy in work"? All men, or some 
kinds? All forms of specialized work, or some particular 
kinds? For specified classes, do bad results accrue chiefly in 
youth, or in middle life? Can ill results be offset by shortening 



76 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

day's work and filling "leisure time" with amateur creative and 
pleasure giving "avocations"? 

b. Single women — in premarriage years by millions, and perma- 
nent celibates by hundreds of thousands — now work for wages 
"away from the home." In certain occupations they first 
"compete" with men, then, because of lesser demands, "capture" 
the vocations — elementary school teaching, indoor salesmanship, 
clerical work, "light" factory work, elevator operation. Shall we 
expect permanent "sex-differentiation" of vocations when dust 
of transition settles? Will girls find chief vocations in highly 
subdivided vocations? Is it feasible for the mature celibate 
woman worker in general to "compete" with the man of same 
age — in the trades, outdoor farming, railway work, the pro- 
fessions, "leadership?" How can his necessities of supporting 
a "real" family — two or three adults, four to six children — 
be safeguarded? 

c. Regimentation of production throws direction into hands of 
those who organize processes and own or represent owners of 
tools — cleared land, discovered mines, erected and equipped 
factories, established "good will," etc. (control by "capital" or 
capitalists). This condition results from: relative perishability 
of capital tools (investments) ; mobility of labor; and superior 
initiative found among owners of capital). But aspirations for 
"industrial democracy" now gather force. These aspirations 
reflect wage workers' desires to share in "control," in policies. 
These are very natural — ^but are feasible programs to be de- 
rived from them — programs that would not involve loss of 
slowly accrued gains — always for dense populations with rising 
standards of living, be it understood? 

6. A great variety of problems of specific aim in vocational education 
still await investigation. 

a. Vocational education is best defined as any form of direct or 
by-education the distinctive purpose or effect of which is to 
produce the skills, knowledges, ideals, or general experiences 
that function in a designated calling. The bookkeeper, by virtue 
of certain special knowledge, skill and integrity, is a producer 
of valuable service in ways that another man of equal qualities, 
due to heredity, environment, and general education, would 
find impossible. The specialized training that gave him this 
power constituted his vocational qualities of B class tailor, 
cook, preacher, kindergarten teacher, sailor, frontier farmer, 
electrical engineer, newsboy, mill-weaver, chauffeur, home- 
maker (in servantless, four-child home), plumber, proofreader, 
colonel, tea-taster, gambler, congressman. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION *J*J 

b. In peculiar degree, constructive proposals for vocational edu- 
cation require foundations of sound economic principles, 
scientifically tested where practicable, careful hypotheses where 
necessary. Problems showing, e.g., this need: To what extent 
in any field of work do supply and demand regulate compen- 
sation? Under what conditions is exploitation chronic? If the 
productivity of the individual is increased, how far can he retain 
for his own use increased product? Do such things as "over- 
crowded" occupations really exist? What is the economic status 
of the wife and mother in none-wage-earning homemaking? 
Are the fields for "unskilled" labor proportionately increased 
by the use of capital and applied science (invention) ? 

c. Consult census, directories, etc., for examples of vocations. 

7. Primitive productive occupations (including fighting) were simple 
and learned naturally (by imitation, suggestion, working with "achieving" 
instincts of youths). Chief differentiation was between sexes — women 
are said to have carried on most arts of tillage and craft. But each 
individual had to be capable of turning his hand to many things — as do 
farmers, small shopkeepers, homemakers, fishermen, to-day. What are 
now the distinctive vocational requirements of surviving "composite" 
vocations ? 

a. But very early certain arts, including priestcraft and healing, 
became hereditary or were pursued by cults or guilds. Here 
begins recognized apprenticeship education usually by-edu- 
cation, because the use of the learner for productive work was 
the primary object. 

8. Conquest at first incorporated only children and women of the cap- 
tured. In higher forms of conquest men are enslaved or left on the land 
as serfs. This introduces a long era — sometimes thought to be the real 
source of institutions making "civilization" (Oppenheimer, Gumplowicz, 
Small), of control of conquered by conquerors, accompanied by forced 
labor, forced tribute, etc. Occupational differentiation and formation of 
castes proceed apace. Endless beginnings of systematic vocational train- 
ing arise (cf. training of slaves, U. S., 1700-1863). 

a. How far will people become good producers, left to ambition 
of self and families? How far may compulsion for vocational 
education be necessary? 

9. In civilized democratic societies ideals of productive work arc held 
for all. Problems arise as to training for this work. 

a. Decline of apprenticeship system of vocational by-education. 

What were the merits of apprenticeship for: professions? 
trades? agriculture? office callings? 

b. Why does "factory" system impair efficiency of shop by-edu- 
cation ? 



78 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

c. Does perfection of machinery in general diminish need for full 
vocational education? (Note: automobile, locomotive, type- 
writer, loom, mowing machine, shoe-making machine, sewing 
machine, power saw, steamship, telegraph, printing press, power 
forge hammer, rifle, power drill, explosives — for mining, Bes- 
semer process, safety razor, gas stove, photo-engraving). 

10. Problems of women in industry — the modern problem of women 
following productive work away from home. (Schreiner.) 

a. Census statistics show rapidly increasing number of women 

in commercial and industrial pursuits. What are age dis- 
tributions and how related to marriage age? 

b. Physiological effects of highly specialized vocations into which 

women go — what are the problems? 

c. Problems of the vocational education of girls and young women 

for specialized, pre-marriage wage-earning. 

d. Problem of wage-earning for home-making women. 

11. Problems of vocational education for home-making women. 

a. When is it desired (motivation) ? When is it necessary? 

When can it most economically be offered (or acquired) ? 
Of what shall it consist? 

b. What are essential features of B class home (non-servant, 
3-6 children, $900-$1500 standard) to-day? 

12. Problems of vocational education for specialized Industrial workers 
(men). 

a. Transitions : early juvenile occupations; late juvenile; early 
adult; late adult; directorship. 

b. Direct, full-time education; direct part-time education (pre- 
paratory, extension). Analysis of by-education of occupation. 

13. Problems of vocational education for trades. Trades in the older 
sense of the word are disappearing. Do dynamic industries involve 
trades ? 

14. Problems of agricultural education ; professional education (men) ; 
professional education (women); commercial education; nautical educa- 
tion. 

15. Vocational guidance — its place and possibilities. (Bibliography: 
Brewer and Kelley, A Selected Critical Bibliography of Vocational Guid- 
ance, Harvard University, 1917). 

16. Organization problems of vocational education — full-time, part-time, 
continuation, preparatory, extension. 

17. Pedagogical problems of vocational education — practice, productive 
work, technical studies, sociological phafies. 



CHAPTER IX 
SOCIAL EDUCATION: SOCIOLOGICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND CONDITIONS 

1. Man has large equipment of social and of individualistic instincts, 
but in most cases these are not so definite in operation as corresponding 
instincts among animals, hence are plastic to agencies of direct and of 
by-education. In small children we readily recognize : (o) "other regard- 
ing" instinctive manifestations which are species of affection, helpfulness, 
cooperation, sympathy, pity, etc., and (b) "self-regarding" reactions, such 
as species of greed, selfishness, envy, anger, avoidance of companionship, 
vindictiveness, etc. In later life other social instincts become active; but 
effects of social environment obscure the characteristics due primarily to 
"original nature." These include species of sex and parental reactions, 
gang cooperation, honor, conscience, religiousness, racial antagonism, 
mutual aid, competition, individual aggrandizement, altruistic sympathy, 
etc. 

Social evolution early imposed upon man necessities for cooperative 
defence, family rearing, work, and conservation of social inheritance. 
Effective cooperation (pragmatically speaking) becomes one important con- 
dition of survival of any strand. Hence evolved societies, social institu- 
tions, endless forms of social organization towards group solidarity. 
Perhaps for hundreds of thousands of years these groups were small — 
families, hordes, clans, tribes; but evolution of "large groups" during last 
ten thousand years has 'been most rapid — giving cities, nations, churches, 
unions, federations, etc., with extensive possessions, spiritual and material, 
to cherish and transmit. 

Hence greatest problem of "social education" in this era of "large 
group" evolution is that of so expanding (or even replacing) "small 
group" virtues to serve the larger social order where most of one's "fel- 
lows" are no longer visible "associates" but invisible "federates." Social 
leaders work ceaselessly to transform the intensely cooperative "brother- 
hood" of the family or clan group into the "brotherhood" of man. 

2. The term "social education" will be here used to include all forms of 
direct and incidental education primarily designed to conserve and promote 
approved desigtied group solidarity. It includes : (a) all forms of "moral'' 
education — these words chiefly connoting efforts to improve "small group" 
or "associate" group relationships; (h) all forms of civic education — 
centering chiefly in efficient membership in town, state, and nation; and 
(c) all forms of religious education — these being interpreted as designed to 
bring man into right social relationships with invisible (and especially 

79 



80 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ascendant) personalities. The term "ethics" can be understood as de- 
noting the "principles of social conduct." 

3. Various varieties of social education are very ancient. Discipline 
within the family group of youngers by elders is incessant. Street as- 
sociation of children involves constant and forceful reshaping of individu- 
alistic or "other group" dispositions towards locally dominant standards. 
The school, church, workshop and club find constant need of enforcing 
"order," especially as part of "breaking in" the young. Mother Grundy 
is more watchful than police in sustaining village morality. Priests are 
among chief educators as to many social virtues. In time of general need 
or inspiration seers, prophets, poets, messiahs arise to orient socializing 
aspirations and programs. Modern nations endeavor to use their school 
systems as means of "socializing" the young. We desire to "Americanize" 
the recent immigrant 

4. Using the terms "virtues" and "vices" inclusively to designate 
approved and disapproved forms of social behavior, social analysis shows 
existence of virtues of "conformity" and virtues of "initiative." Standards 
of social conformity are found in customs and conventions, laws and 
commandments, rules and regulations, precepts and dogmas, as developed 
by various types of social groups, nations, tribes, corporations, armies, 
schools, unions, families, congregations. Conformity is enforced through 
numberless forms of penalties — appeals to fear — and through equally num- 
berless forms of approval — appeals to love, ambition, etc. Religion at 
times has great freightage of terrors and joys as incentives; similarly 
political organizations, communities, vocational organizations. 

Standards for the social virtues of initiative are less capable of defini- 
tion. The group views with suspicion the innovator, rebel, heretic, free 
thinker, inventor, bohemian, radical, because by experience it knows that 
these are usually self-centered or at least visionary individualists or "small 
group" devotees, capable of "tearing down the old house before they have 
any real command of materials for the building up of a new house." 
But, once having proved (usually by "success") their constructiveness, the 
daring and foresight of prophets, revolutionaries, inventors, reformers, 
sect founders, and liberals is approved at least by newly developed groups. 
In a normally evolving social order, of course, "cakes of custom" should 
not be allowed to form so hard that only revolutionary dynamite can break 
them; hence the desirability of having many members in each group 
competent and disposed to practice virtues of initiative — leadership, 
originality, vision, liberalism, progressiveness. 

In static eras of group evolution forces of social education are naturally 
chiefly directed towards producing virtues of conformity. "Authority" 
(of God, church, ancestors, kings, constitutions, laws, conventions) domi- 
nates. Elaborate mechanisms, of social control are produced — revelations, 
creeds, codes, regulations, red tape, ceremonials, taboos, traditions. These 
constitute so much a social environment for the young that habituation 
is largely unconscious. Nevertheless elaborate procedures of direct social 



SOCIAL EDUCATION 8 1 

education are also found. Rituals are drilled, catechisms memorized, spe- 
cific emotions repeatedly kindled and hero (exemplar) tales endlessly 
retold. 

In dynamic eras sway of authority weakens, at least in some groupings. 
Independents follow new leaders, flout old customs, cheer new enter- 
prises. But to conserve gains heretofore the new groupings have had 
to establish new conformities. So we say that only recently has there 
developed a "tradition" of progress, a prevailing belief in, and acceptance 
of the consequences of, social evolution. Shall we yet learn to prize always 
the sincere, able nonconformist? Perhaps social science will yet enable us 
to distinguish wholesome from poisonous qualities of initiative, to cultivate 
the right kind and early to root up the wrong. "Good citizenship" now in 
America vaguely idealizes at least some virtues of independence, non- 
conformity, liberalism, progressiveness. But in complex societies, and 
having in mind the inexperience of the young and the shortsightedness of 
rank and file, "liberalism" may be like fire and water — a good servant but 
a disastrous master. 

5. The final tests imposed by nature on group evolution are, of course, 
survival — not in the immediate, but in the ultimate, sense. War has always 
been the most visible and dramatic test of group solidarity. Other tests 
may be equally crucial, but less intelligible — to diffuse intelligence, to pro- 
mote justice, to conserve and improve stock, to store capital, to utilize 
natural resources, even to hold sound religiousness. But history writes 
mostly of war — ^because the storm in a moment tests years of patient work 
of builders. 

In one sense "might" or "social efficiency" makes "right" — that is, the 
jnight of individual healthfulness, of sound family life, of even-handed 
justice, of democratic government, of genuine individual freedom and of 
effective education — ^because these give the stone and cement to structure 
capable of weathering social storms. 

History clearly shows rapid increase in size and complexity of most 
social groupings (especially the political and economic) during last few 
centuries. Survival here, as in case of ancient empires, may be threatened 
more by agencies of internal dissolution than by agencies of external 
aggression. Hence needs of new types of social education. 

Efficacy of all forms of "authoritarian" social education is clearly de- 
clining, due to spread of habits of scientific thinking and aspirations for 
democracy. Note diminishing place of creeds, taboos, dogmas, ceremonials, 
ancestor worship, anthropomorphism of deities, conscription of under- 
standing, appeals to emotion, vested rights of rank, etc. Note also in- 
creasingly critical attitude towards laws, constitutions, private property, 
traditional leadership, classic standards, and non-interference with opera- 
tion of natural laws of "supply and demand" as regulative of standards 
of exchange. But methods of "rational" or "scientific" social education 
for "large group" participations ate still largely wanting. 



82 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

6. Endless experimentation — usually poorly directed — now proceeds in 
social education. 

a. The discipline of home, school, church and courts becomes 
more rational, less directly coercive, and somewhat more scien- 
tific in objectives. 

h. For spontaneous social activities are being increasingly substi- 
tuted purposeful ones — scouting, clubs, co-education, part-time 
production, practical arts, military training. 

c. Community civics, government, "other nations study," economics, 
social science, "socializing" literature, are all being developed as 
"beta class" means of social education. 

d. Social control of the photodrama, reconstruction of the juvenile 
court and juvenile prisons, and scores of other means of im- 
proving the by-education of environment are being experi- 
mented with. 

e. The teaching of history can obviously be made a means of 
social education — either "colored," partisan history or "scien- 
tific" history. But outside of use as means of patriotic parti- 
sanship, it is doubtful if objectives are yet satisfactorily defined. 

7. Describe large basis for social education in individualistic, small- 
group, and large-group instincts. Note especially : 

a. Theory that primate ancestor of man was not gregarious — pos- 
sibly solitary, gorilla-like. (Compare man with gregarious ani- 
mals.) 

h. Early appearance in children of individualistic instincts — prop- 
erty, self-protection (lying, fighting), "selfishness," self-center- 
edness of adolescent. 

c. Also early appearance of "small-group" instincts — family, clique, 
playmates, gang, etc. 

d. Tendency of primitive men to intensify "small-group" develop- 
ment, and antagonize "large-group" interests — clan, brother- 
hood, union, feud, Greek vs. barbarian aliens, pagans, nationals, 
conflicts between small and large groups as regards antagonisms, 
virtues, etc. 

e. That the problem of social education is found in transforming 

of "virtues" and modification of attitudes developed from 
simple instincts — sympathy, pugnacity, property, cooperation, 
toleration, etc. 

8. Primitive societies had ever-present problems of social education. 
Peace and cooperation were essential within group if it was to sustain 
and defend itself. 

a. War has always been the most visible and dramatic test of 
group solidarity. Other tests (to reproduce well, to migrate, 
to develop capital, to diffuse intelligence, to control natural 



SOCIAL EDUCATION 83 

forces, to resist sloth and licentiousness, to administer justice) 
are doubtless equally crucial, but not so evident, visible. Hence 
much of history is that of war. 

b. Religion has its largest function in promoting the fears, aspir- 
ations, taboos and rewards making for social coherence (when 
pure, genuinely functional; it, too, is subject to degeneration at 
times). 

c. Note the use of art in primitive "social control" and "social 
welding." 

9. Societies seem to pass through a mediaeval (early civilization) stage 
when "custom control" (dogma authority, belief, tradition, "divinely sanc- 
tioned" laws) plays a very large part. 

o. Institutions now develop (creeds, theologies, constitutions, courts 
of justice, courts of ruling classes, castes, ceremonials, impos- 
ing art — literature, architecture, drama). 

b. We — too near breaking of periods of this era — are prone to 
evaluate its results in terms of its declining, "old-age" manifes- 
tations. In its early stages, doubtless a much needed and 
splendid advance beyond barbarism. (Note symptoms of 
breakdown of custom control — in religion, politics, economic in- 
stitutions, domestic institutions.) 

10. Modern societies strive to emerge on the plane of rational social 
control. 

a. Democracy strives to make the individual a person — an end, 
not a means. 

b. Modern man aspires to free thought, free speech, free worship, 
free migration, free business, free domesticity, free govern- 
ment, within limits of group safety, (cf. Reformations, revo- 
lutions, higher criticisms, etc.) 

c. Free man, leading in these matters, is distressed to find serfs, 
bondmen, slaves, women, even children, following, imitating, 
asserting rights. He resents the inevitable spread of democra- 
cy and free thinking outward and downward. Hence peren- 
nial present conflict between authority (custom rule) and 
strivings of democracy. 

11. Problems of social education to-day, then, must take account of 
and use manifestations of democracy. 

a. Note the diminishing place of creeds, dogmas, taboos, unin- 
telligible prohibitions, ceremonials, emotional appeals, respect 
for authority (as such alone), conscription (of will and intelli- 
gence), sacredness of private property, obedience to scholars, 
etc Note general indifference to laws, as such. 

b. Note demand for scientific justification, approval of intelligible 

ideals, respect for personalities, regard for visible social service. 



84 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

c. A period of transition is always one of disintegration, danger 
of revolution, decline of many valuable customs, standards, 
etc. But "the clock does not turn back." 

12. Objectives of profitable social education of two kinds: (a) pro- 
vision of right conditions for social development; {h) provision of definite 
objectives for social training and education. 

a. Social control, in interests of right social education, of home, 
street, clubs, "movies," literature, police power, occupational 
life, all now practicable. Social provision of broader group 
activities (Boy-Scout, school government, public service, mili- 
tary training, co-education, economic part-time production) also 
possible. 
h. Community civics, specialized literature of idealism, govern- 
ment, study of nations, economics, ethics, probably all good 
means, at appropriate stage of development, of direct social 
education. 



CHAPTER X 

CULTURAL EDUCATION: SOCIOLOGICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND CONDITIONS 

L Participation in usual forms of group life, apart from vocational and 
political relationships, requires that each individual shall be possessed 
of certain essentials of the social inheritance — comprehensible speech, 
common knowledge, manners, tastes, etc. Beyond this, individuals and 
certain cultural groups are greatly advantaged in happiness and general 
usefulness, through extensive development of one or more out of a vast 
potential variety of non-vocational interests, appreciations and powers. 
The term "culture" as here used is restricted to its more common usage, 
as inclusive of a wide range of intellectual and aesthetic interests, appreci- 
ations, powers (or otherwise tastes, ideals, manners, standards), largely 
individual or personal in character, and having relatively little direct 
bearing on vocational proficiency or effective participation in groups func- 
tioning for moral or civic ends. 

a. The division "Cultural Education" is designed to include, first, 
those objectives of education — direct education and by-educa- 
tion — embodying that common knowledge and appreciation 
which do not clearly function in vocations, useful group-activi- 
ties, or personal physical well-being, and which in a civilized 
state are sought on behalf of all persons. Some of these ob- 
jectives — e.g., vernacular in spoken and written forms, elemen- 
tary arithmetic, local geography, manners, and everyday read- 
ing — have functional values in all kinds of education; but it is 
clear that their largest value is in establishing a common cul- 
ture. The beginnings of literature, art, science, history, and 
world geography also enter as elements of this common culture. 

b. There is included, in the second place, all those objectives that 
are sought on behalf of individuals for the sake of enriching 
the personal life, especially as regards intellectual and aesthetic 
interests, when these are not specialized for vocational, social, 
or physical ends. Include various "interests" in ancient history, 
current events, genealogy, numismatics, archaeology, ethnology, 
poetry, essays, fiction, biography, wit and humor, English gram- 
mar, Russian literature, Greek drama, Shakespearean drama, con- 
temporary drama, "ice age" geology, neighborhood flora, moun- 
tain exploration, foreign travel, violin music, ancient art, modern 
architecture, eclipses, dress, dancing, entertainment, decoration 
of home, hobbies, avocations, etc. 

85 



86 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

2. Cultural play, analogous to physical play, is doubtless an essential 
means to cultural growth. Its incentives are intellectual and aesthetic 
curiosity, interest, etc. Because the actual final functionings of these 
play interests are obscure (as indeed they also are in physical play) par- 
ents, educators and others responsible for provision of means, are apt 
to neglect them in preoccupations with more tangible ends. Educational 
innovations, urged by Froebel, Herbart, Parker, Elliot, and Dewey rested 
partly upon recognition of these considerations. Complete education re- 
quires, first, full provision for cultural growth (of natural, unartificial 
kinds — beta objectives) and then of cultural training (of purposive kinds — 
alpha objectives). For example in promoting linguistic culture: it is de- 
sirable, first, that the young child grow in an environment of correct and 
abundant speech — vernacular, and if facilities are available, one or more 
alien tongues; then, in relative maturity, that he enter upon systematic 
training towards more refined or difficult powers and appreciations — in 
vernacular and other. 

3. "Education for leisure" is an approved ideal of "cultural education." 
In a sound economic order all have some leisure or time apart from voca- 
tional, civic, and physical necessities (work, politics, sleep, exercise) ; this 
leisure will be filled with sociability, amusement, recreation, and attempts 
to satisfy aesthetic, intellectual, and physical desires. These may be of a 
low order and deleterious — physical indulgence, degrading sports, hurtful 
amusements. With right education, more enduring tastes and interests 
can presumably be established towards the enrichment of individual, and, 
indirectly, of social life. 

a. In social evolution a conquering predatory class has often pro- 
duced a minority of adults who have had a disproportionate 
amount of leisure. In periods of high social idealism, these, 
competing in higher forms of utilization, have promoted refine- 
ment of manners, ceremonials, literature, fine arts, decorative 
arts, building, sports, and even science, research, etc. Under 
other circumstances, they compete in ornamenting the person, 
fostering elegant parasitism, and in "conspicuous waste." (See 
Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class.) 

b. In industrial society or one having land-owning aristocracy, 
accumulators of capital, and especially their descendants, con- 
stitute successors of leisure class, and these also compete in 
special cultural developments, sometimes beautiful, sometimes 
sordid. 

c. Few men in America now willing to admit membership in, or 

exhibit characteristics of, leisure class. That prerogative is 
sometimes left to their decorative women — usually wives and 
daughters, but sometimes specialized entertainers. 

4. The transmission of the "social inheritance" of culture becomes a 
large purpose in societies, even when practical consequences of such trans- 



CULTURAL EDUCATION 87 

mission are not obvious. Schools are created to this end in cases where 
by-education of other agencies would not suffice. 

a. During most historic periods premiums were placed upon tellers 

of tales, singers, readers, sages, ritualists, teachers, historians, 
etc., who could thus transmit. Equal importance attaches to 
monuments, inscriptions, runes, museums, libraries, galleries, 
place names, word spellings, commemorative feast and name 
days, etc. 

b. A crude, strong people conquering a relatively refined, cultur- 
ally advanced people gives rise to curious new interests, (cf. 
Heroic Ages in Greece, Servia, Scandinavia, England.) 

c. The "mining out" of the cultural riches of a past that has be- 

come overlain creates a peculiarly intense "backward looking" 
set of cultural interests. The memorable example of the Ren- 
aissance, "discovering" Roman literature, then Greek and He- 
brew, (cf. Literature of the Renaissance.) The impetus given 
the study of classic languages (and to lesser extent, literatures) 
persists to this day, especially outside of Latin countries. 

5. The "humanities" or "humanism" signify those cultural studies prized 
especially on behalf of the more influential men of society, the "leaders," 
by which they are enabled to see the social or human side of the world in 
its larger aspects. It is expected that "social," i.e., civic and moral, 
results will derive, hence these studies, if shown so to function, might be 
classed as social. (Note that some observers rank the "social science" 
studies — now so popular in American colleges, — as the "New Humanities.") 

a. The problem as to how far it is expedient or wholesome for the 
highest approved culture of a people to be made thus dependent 
on the past is still important. Too much dependence on the 
past may paralyze initiative (cf. Nietzsche, The Study of His- 
tory). For purposes of conservation, reliance on static order, 
doubtless use of the "past" for "followers" is desirable. But 
probably only very exceptional "leaders" who give social varia- 
bility can profitably utilize the past, except as a means of ex- 
plaining or confirming or negating hypotheses already formed. 

b. Note thesis developed later that probably the "past" in history 
and literature should be studied only in the light of good ground- 
ing in the present. 

6. Culture, for purposes of education, should be distinguished into (a) 
common culture — which it is expected all in a democracy shall possess, 
and (b) individual culture, the possession of the interested individual and 
his congenial fellows. 

a. We assume certain degrees of proficiency in the oral and writ- 
ten language arts — speech, writing, reading, — interest in general 
reading, and some knowledge of the best literature, comprehen- 
sion of simple arithmetic (arithmetic of utilization), acquaint- 



88 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ance with common facts and principles of history and geog- 
raphy, and appreciation of simple music and plastic art, as con- 
stituting the basis of common culture. 
b. Beyond this, education — in direct and indirect forms — makes 
provision on a public, endowed or commercial basis, for endless 
special forms of special cultural development along lines of 
literature, art, music, history, science, crafts, sociability, travel, 
etc. Within limits, it is usually agreed that society can well 
afford at public expense to foster these forms. (Note : classical 
studies in secondary schools; varied "liberal" courses in col- 
lege ; endowed and state galleries, museums, theatres, expositions, 
public art, etc.) 

7. "Liberal education" — here used to include both cultural and social 
education — can be interpreted profitably as "education for utilization" — 
thus placing it in contradistinction to "education for production" (voca- 
tional education). Utilization not necessarily a final end itself, but in such 
fields as literature, science, art, crafts, sports, travel, ends beyond utiliza- 
tion (health, sanity, "progress," "rich personality," character, salvation) 
are difficult of analysis. Hence, as in the case of play, we say gratifica- 
tion of aesthetic and intellectual interests on highgrade play basis is a 
justifiable end in itself (not to be confused with "art for art's sake," etc.). 
o. Man is a potential utilizer of the literature, art and music of all 
ages and climes; the scientific knowledge — mathematics, astron- 
omy, chemistry, mechanics, sociology, geology, ethnology, etc., — 
that the experience of the world has rolled up; the institutional 
life that has become organized; the endless forms of association 
with unseen personalities which we call religion; the varied 
forms of association which make family, community, and other 
forms of group life; the services of unnumbered specialist 
workers in medicine, law, accounting, tillage, etc. 

b. Man's political relationships (the ends of "good citizenship") 
can be assembled in two chief categories : (o) Good citizenship 
consists, first, in conforming, in fitting to the established order, 
in obedience to laws and serviceable conventions — all expressed 
in the passive virtues of obedience, patience, industry, submis- 
sion, temperance, thrift, etc. (b) For many, good citizenship 
consists also in taking the initiative, being aggressive, breaking 
with routine and established order, criticising laws and their 
executors, — all expressed as active virtues, such as non-con- 
formity, independence, radicalism, free thinking, organizing of 
new movements, etc. 

But as regards many civic functions, man is chiefly a coopera- 
tive employer of specialist service — a joint utilizer of that ser- 
vice. Hence social education may be interpreted partly in 
terms of making man a good chooser, discriminating buyer, 
generous rewarder of specialist service — ^a socialized consumer. 



CHAPTER XI 

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTIVES 

A. Mental Training 

1. The "trained mind"— -like the "trained hand," the "efficient body," 
"good character," and "good citizenship" — has long been a "faith objec- 
tive" in education. The aspiration takes specific forms — training persons 
"to think," "to concentrate," "to observe," "to be guided by scientific 
method," "to be thorough." We say that under certain systems of teach- 
ing men learned "to work," "to have common sense," "to be exact," "to be 
self-reliant." Uncritical thinkers easily develop beliefs in educational 
"simples" or "panaceas," for example: that where study or work or the 
necessities of life impose close observation (or attention, or reasoning or 
self-reliance) of one species or variety, substantial increments of power are 
gained for all varieties of the general activity. Hence the superstitious 
vogue of Latin, grammar, mental arithmetic, algebra, sloyd, calesthenics, 
dead language classics, and fine needle work as "disciplinary" pursuits. 
Hence also, vogue at times of verbal memorization, formal logic, certain 
kinds of army drill, political and religious rituals, and, possibly, ceremonial 
observances. 

2. Critical analysis of visible mental phenomena, quite apart from study 
of psychology, can dispel some superstition as to "mental training" (and 
equally, "moral training," "physical training," and "cultural education"). 

a. Every savage (and animal) has in highly developed form cer- 
tain species of observation, attention, verbal memory, common 
sense, patience, industry, loyalty, manual skill, etc. But he is 
deficient in many other varieties that count much in civilized 
life. Every farmer, hunter, fisherman, factory hand, street 
gamin, jail bird, and traveller has not only a variety of well- 
developed specific powers of kinds noted above, but also more 
composite forms of "reasoning," "judgment," "imagination," 
"aesthetic appreciations" and the like; but along with these 
manifest deficiencies in other species. 

b. It is manifestly practicable to give "specific" training in endless 
varieties. Given time, direction, motive, etc., every normal in- 
dividual can be trained: to be "observant" of stars or of 
game signs, or of customers' faces or of disease symptoms or of 
enemy forces; to "attend" closely to military directions, typo- 
graphical errors, concert disharmonies, or the "form" of base- 
ball players; to be "exact" in pronunciation of French, lace- 
making, shooting a rifle, typing, or playing the violin ; to "think 

89 



90 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

out" the difficulties of burglarizing a house, beating an opponent 
at chess, erecting a new bridge, or providing a dinner. 

c. Also it is clear that men inherit different potentialities for some» 

if not all, kinds of possible training. Just as some are endowed 
with bodies that easily permit of learning many varieties of 
skills, so others seem to have nervous matter or mechanisms, 
easily permitting great advances in mathematics or verbal mem- 
orization or science or business organization. 

d. But popular opinion and educational theory have probably 
greatly exaggerated possibilities of "spread" of training of one 
variety to another or of a basis of "general" powers, deceived 
partly by mystic or magic of "general terms." Reactions es- 
sentially superstitious can be evoked by such magic terms as 
"common sense," "ability to think," powers to read "the printed 
page," the "scientific imagination," sense of the ''beautiful," 
loyalty, culture, etc. Patriotism "is the last refuge of the 
scoundrel." So the magic of mental training is the last refuge 
of traditional objectives of education in process of being de- 
feated by increase of knowledge — Latin, Chinese classics, sloyd, 
gymnastics, military drill, verbal memorization, mechanical 
drawing, needlework. 

B. Education for Family Membership 

Importance of the family as a social group suggests to some contem- 
porary writers desirability of "effective family membership" as a composite 
objective of education. But this probably unserviceable objective because: 
a. "Family membership" includes various quite unlike relationships 
— filial, fraternal and parental. First and second involve chiefly 
certain virtues of conformity, third of initiative. 

h. But, fundamentally, the family is only one type of the various 
social groups in which each individual has membership. Educa- 
tion successively in the filial, the fraternal, and the parental 
virtues constitutes therefore simply part of social education 
for group life. (See social education for differentiation of 
numerous social groups in which normal individuals have mem- 
bership, and differentiation of the specific virtues required for 
each.) 

C. Education for Leisure 

In current discussion this is frequently urged as an important composite 
objective. Apparently the ideal is based upon facts that : (a) Under mod- 
em economic conditions the amount of time each adult has free from 
vocational obligations and necessities of rests tends to increase; and (t) 
that in absence of proper habituation, leisure time is spent in profitless if 
not degrading pursuits. (It can be assumed that each individual "vrill, vrith- 



MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTIVES 9I 

in his opportunities, spend his leisure upon such diversion, recreation, and 
cuhure as then appeals to him.) 

1. Studies are needed as to prevailing facts of disposition of leisure now. 
Until recently some men spent much leisure in saloons. Now men of 
means resort to clubs. Where facilities are available, adolescents spend 
time on sports. Social activities incident to courtship claim many. Mov- 
ing pictures now provide diversion for millions while use of fiction and 
other easy reading claims many others. Before extensive proposals for "edu- 
cation for leisure" are made, we should know : (o) Since all persons now 
spend their leisure in somewise, what are the types of diversion (and what 
the social groups among whom they prevail) that are deleterious or at least 
of relatively low value? (Note ease here with which moralists and pedants 
can impute artificially low or high valuations.) (b) What are, for persons 
of given ages, occupations, native interests, and the like optimum types of 
diversion, recreation, avocation, social intercourse, worship, and self- 
culture that should be held as specific objectives of educational programs 
in elementary schools, high schools, colleges, vocational schools, extension 
courses, etc. 

2. Probability suggested that "education for leisure" will not prove a 
workable composite objective. Its component specific objectives properly 
belong in other categories, e.g., physical recreation and diversion; social 
(sociability) recreation, diversion; cultural recreation, diversion; avoca- 
tions for incidental gain, recreation, diversion. Study of the valid objec- 
tives of literature, practical arts, travel, fine arts, social games, sports, etc., 
should establish their values for profitable leisure time occupations. On 
negative side certain wasteful forms of use of leisure — dissipation, 
vagrancy, gang association — must be combatted through education in 
hygiene and moral behavior. 



CHAPTER XII 
AGENCIES OF EDUCATION 

1. The objectives of sound, constructive social action are to be realized 
largely through control of the conditions which make of children men and 
women capable, as far as practicable, of realizing the known and approved 
standards of a wholesome and progressive society. 

a. These conditions may, for practical purposes, be considered in 

four classes — namely, those due to: (a) biological heredity; (b) 
nurturing environment (or material environment) ; (c) by- 
education of social environment (family, church, street, shop, 
clique) ; and (d) direct education of school and other agencies 
of primarily educational purpose. 

b. The biological fact of the long infancy (plastic period in the 
human species — product of evolution change) constitutes in 
part the basis for control, especially of by-education and direct 
education. 

c. Other bases are found in (a) exceptional adaptability of the 

human individual as regards food, shelter, work, general edu- 
cability, mobility; (b) accumulation of "social inheritance" of 
knowledge, ideals, institutions, inventions; and (c) capacity for 
joint or cooperative effort. 

2. Biological heredity, for social economy, constitutes largely a fixed 
"given quantity," but under general designation, "eugenics,'' some proposals 
now advanced for social control of marriage towards favoring increase of 
stocks or strains of most promise (cf. Galton, Davenport, Conklin). 

a. Doubtless eugenic results have been achieved in the past — but 
only in part purposefully — as where upper castes clung to "pure 
mating" : (a) Weak stocks and strains have been first eliminated 
in war, famine, settlement, etc. Perhaps modern war reverses 
natural selection; (b) strong men claimed ablest women and in 
largest numbers (wife seizure, wife purchase, polygamy). 
Perhaps natural selection is also reversed in modern middle- 
class society, — cf. studies of diminishing birthrate among classes 
with high standards of living; (c) upper castes have sought to 
prevent caste mixture or mongrelizing; (d) possibly the usual 
processes of courtship selection have favored the strong, intelli- 
gent, beautiful; and, (e) possibly, except where competition for 
higher standards of living is fierce, the strong, intelligent, moral 
and persistent have, as parents, favored preponderant increase 
of adults from their families. 

92 



AGENCIES OF EDUCATION 93 

(1) Give illustrations of eugenic selections now operative; 
also of dysgenic selection. 

b. Negative eugenics proposes social action to prevent unions of 
those who would probably bequeath hereditary defects to pro- 
gency. (Proposals ? ) 

c. Positive eugenics looks to favoring social action designed to in- 

crease those of good heredity. (Proposals?) 

d. The whole subject of eugenics is still in the stage of discussion 
and examination of fundamental facts upon which tentative 
proposals may be based, (e.g., "Standards of selection"; inter- 
ference with rights of individuality" ; problems for democracy — 
"ethics of the barnyard.") 

3. Nurturing material environment here includes those factors of food, 
shelter, security, rest, play activity, work activity, that affect the growth 
of the child from birth to maturity. To the social economist, many of 
the elements of these factors are also "fixed given quantities"; while 
others are increasingly within man's control. 

o. Primitive man had little besides natural protection against 
climate, limitations of food supply, danger from enemies. Civi- 
lized society devises endless means of procuring protection from 
natural climate (housing), of insuring permanent and adequate 
food supply (agriculture, cooking, storage), and of fencing off 
enemies (animal, bacterial). In his zeal, he sometimes cuts off 
play activities (physical, intellectual, emotional) and over- 
emphasizes work activities, especially for the young. 

b. Nurturing environment, if too favorable, may produce "hot 
house" social conditions, precocious development, specialized 
development, "softening," and so result in termination of stock 
or strain, (cf. Sterility of thoroughbred animals, historical 
ascendency of peoples coming from "hard conditions," alleged 
degeneracy of "city dwellers." Illustrate from: luxurious soci- 
ety; "women of ease"; "soft children"; excess of nurture, etc.) 

c. Hence probability that heredity sets definte limits beyond which 

the material environment cannot safely be rendered more favor- 
able. 

d. Nevertheless, the rational control of material environment to- 
wards providing a reasonably "protected childhood" for every 
child received by society constitutes a large field of positive 
action for social economy. Direct education of children towards 
competent parenthood constitutes one essential means. Im- 
portant additional fields for investigation are: (a) Control of 
size of family; (b) state aid towards meeting of parental re- 
sponsibilities; (c) development of sanitation; (d) increasing 
social control of economic forces. (What are some current pro- 
posals? What are public health authorities doing?) 



94 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

4. The child's participation in social life (his groups) results incessantly 
in developments and changes essentially educational in character. Where 
this education results as a by-product of activities not primarily educa- 
tional in character or purpose, it is here called by-education (in contrast 
with direct, purposeful or formal education in school, etc.). 

o. The child is instinctively a learner, and, within limits, his elders — 
parents, and other adults, older brothers, sisters, and play- 
fellows, — are instinctively teachers. Note the extent to which 
the child thus acquires speech, conformities in behavior (morals, 
manners), knowledge, orientations of feeling (values, preju- 
dices, sentiments, ideals), working skills, forms of play, etc. 

h. Note that primary (i.e., determining) functions of family (or 
home), shop, (farm, office, road, boat), church, playground, 
street, club, press, stage, police power are not edufation. As 
they become better adjusted to the discharge of their functions, 
these agencies may become less valuable as a means of right 
by-education (cf. contemporary examples). 

c. On the other hand, sometimes, moderate conscious social ad- 
justment may greatly enhance right educative possibilities of 
these agencies without material impairment of primary functions 
(cf. contemporary achievements in housing, homemaking and 
other forms of vocational cooperative education, juvenile court, 
educational "movies," supervised playgrounds, Sunday schools, 
boys' clubs, etc.). 

d. By-education is the inevitable result of social participation on 
the part of the child. Such by-education must be evaluated as 
good, or bad; expansive or restrictive (of social personality) ; 
social or anti-social. A part of the functions of direct educa- 
tion may be offset by bad results of by-education (e.g., speech, 
morals, narrow group loyalties, combative tendencies, etc.). 

e. For social economy, important fields of action are found in (o) 

fostering right educative possibilities of social agencies without 
impairing primary functions; (6) providing for detachment of 
child when adverse influences dominate; {c) fostering agencies 
of direct education to meet deficiencies in by-education of special 
classes. 

5. Agencies of direct education are created by society to meet special 
needs in development of young or plastic individuals, not met in satis- 
factory degree by existing agencies of by-education. Hence, all working 
or practicable definitions of required functions of agencies of direct 
education, while conforming to the general standards of sound social 
economy, must, in general, be stated in terms of special and distinctive 
ends to be achieved. 

o. Purposive education towards discharge of military functions 
is one of the most ancient forms. At times, specific portions of 



AGENCIES OF EDUCATION 95 

vocational education have been isolated from by-education 
(apprenticeship) of productive activities, as direct education. 
Direct education in credal forms and ritualistic activities was 
long organized apart from by-education of worship. Direct edu- 
cation for prospective rulers (princes, statesmen, and for culture 
of leisure class) resulted in schools in early societies where con- 
querors and conquered produced castes. High valuation of 
literacy for Bible reading, voting, vocational capacity, etc., gives 
schools for reading and writing vernacular. 

b. Note at present scores of specific aims suggested for direct 
education, resulting in general from increased comprehension of 
valuable results to be achieved by direct education, (cf. Special 
forms of cultural, physical, social and vocational education 
urged for inclusion in public schools.) 

6. Effective coordination of the various developmental and educative 
agencies usually operative becomes increasingly necessary as one purpose 
in sound social economy. "Modern social economy" exhibits numberless 
attempts largely sporadic and half effective as yet at such coordination. 

a. The "school" (for direct education) is the most purposive and, 
consequently, the most expensive of educational agencies. Its 
functions are properly "residual" — that is, it is designed to pro- 
duce those necessary or desirable results which other agencies, 
less expensive, cannot adequately perform. Note as examples : 
(1) vernacular speech is learned at home; but advanced speech, 
and written languages largely at school; (2) most vocations 
have been inexpensively learned through "pick-up" methods of 
experience; but difficult ones, medicine, military leadership, 
stenography, elementary teaching, have long been learned in 
schools; (3) until very recently no English schools attempted 
to "teach" literature (that being held as a proper function of 
the home) ; but American schools have long attempted that func- 
tion — fruitlessly? (4) until recently it had not been assumed 
that, except for certain vocations — usually military or for 
"beauty culture," schools should be provided to aid physical 
development; now we think certain ends of physical training or 
development can only be met by schools; (5) technical schools 
(engineering are best examples) systematically teach certain 
forms of technical knowledge, as well as give practice in some 
arts (drawing, laboratory technique;, but "practical phases" of 
vocation must be learned in field as belated apprenticeship (note 
that medicine and teaching were once in similar basis). 

b. "Public Schools" controlled by society at large have peculiar 
residual responsibilities, at least where the collective well-being 
is involved, as to: (1) providing "compensatory" education to 
offset special deficiencies of agencies of by-education — family 
neglect, residential slums, deprivation of vocational opportuni- 



g6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

ties, etc.; (2) provision of educational aid in emergency situa- 
tions — physical defectiveness (blind, deaf, crippled), moral delin- 
quency, mental subnormality ; (3) provision of special facilities 
for the unadjusted — immigrants, dislocated; (4) provision of 
vocational education where historic agencies of by-education 
break down; and (5) general, (but only partially responsible) 
oversight of educational results of all agencies. 

c. Like all other relatively specialized and self -centered institu- 
tions, schools tend, unless counteractive force is exerted; (1) 
to aggrandize functions, and (2) to develop disharmonies with 
other agencies. Public schools especially manifest these failings. 
For example: in fields of vernacular speech, moral standards, 
physical development, household arts, physical development, 
"sense" training and "manual" training, it is difficult if not im- 
possible to get teachers to "appreciate," much less to "evaluate" 
and utilize, effects of home, street and vocation education. 
Hence arise a variety of problems of coordination. 

7. The effectiveness of family and home education lacks as yet scien- 
tific examination. This is the oldest agency; and its contributions are still 
vital in nurture, vernacular, morals, physical habits, elementary general 
skills, cultural appreciations, and social evaluations. Educators lightly 
assume that educational efficacy of home is declining. Manifest failures 
of coordination exist. Tentative sociological analysis suggests following 
as examples of problems needing careful examination: 

a. The classification and grading of homes according to their actual 
present performance of functions now valued educationally. 
For example: (1) What kinds and how many homes now so 
provide conditions for children of 4 to 6 as to render kinder- 
garten attendance largely superfluous? (2) What kinds and how 
many homes now so nourish literary interests of adolescents as 
to render school efforts largely superfluous? (3) Is not school 
teaching of "agriculture" to many farm boys largely carrying 
coals to Newcastle? (4) What kinds and how many homes now 
train in household arts, as to justify specialized school programs 
for girls from such homes? (5) What are the kinds and number 
of homes where English speech is so bad that extensive school 
efforts toward correct standards should be made from age 4 on- 
ward ? (6) What are kinds and numbers of homes where super- 
visory conditions are such that boys (at least) from 9 to 15 
should be in school not less than 12 hours daily, and for 300 
days yearly (English day parental school) ? 

b. Can schools, by moderate stimulation, standard setting, and 
slight cooperation greatly improve certain varieties of home 
education? (1) The home is the natural workshop in home- 
making; why should not schools of household arts and vo- 
cational homemaking use it to the full ? (2) Adolescent girls com- 



AGENCIES OF EDUCATION 97 

pete in decoration and in premature development of character- 
istics, prized by the "smart set" ; mothers individually, helpless 
against combined efforts of daughters ; teachers could cooperate 
with mothers against prematurity and extravagance. 

c. Many similar problems can be found as to: (1) use of vacations 
for "beta" types of education; (2) promotion of home culture — 
reading, music, practical arts; (3) cooperative use of special 
offerings in moving pictures houses — for example on Friday 
nights and Saturday afternoons; (4) development of hygienic 
"practices." 

8. The effectiveness of shop "pick up" vocational education offers many 
openings for constructive effort, greatly facilitated, of course, by com- 
pulsory continuation school attendance. "Part-time" schools — for "initial" 
as well as for "up grading" vocational education — offer large opportuni- 
ties. 

9. Correctional education (of offenders) already shows many attempts 
at coordination between juvenile prisons, schools, courts, police, and proba- 
tion service. But ineffectiveness still generally prevails, partly as result of 
obscure objectives, educational as well as criminological. 

10. Play facilities primarily for physical education are often deficient 
in cities. Many experiments at social provision of these are under way; 
but here, too, satisfactory specific objectives are largely wanting. 

11. Religious denominations of several kinds still insist that religious and 
secular education must be coordinated in one school if results are to be 
effective. The entire subject needs examination. 

12. Many other problems of coordination of education and specific 
determination of desirable functions of schools await examination: (a) 
Can scouting grow on present basis, or is closer affiliation with schools 
desirable? (h) In what ways shall the potentialities of the photodrama be 
utilized towards more approved objectives? (c) Should not every school 
room in poor quarters and in rural districts be a "branch" of the public 
library {d) (readers add others). 



CHAPTER XIII 

MECHANISMS OF EDUCATION 
A. Institutional 

1. Agencies of nurture, by-education, and direct education tend always 
to develop mechanisms of means, method and administration. These tend 
towards regimentation or institutionalization, their upholding and further- 
ering coming to be held as ends rather than as means to realization of 
more real values. 

a. Since education is a minor rather than a major function of non- 
school agencies, their educational mechanisms are less fixed than 
those of schools. Note how methods of "shop" education have 
changed from elaborate apprenticeship of the crafts with advent 
of power driven machinery. Urbanization of population, rational- 
izing of religion, commercializing of diversions, scientific organi- 
zation of defence (war) and democratization of courts and 
police power have greatly modified historic educative mechanisms 
ancillary to these agencies. 

2. Schools, like churches, rest largely on foundations of custom long 
after science has invaded and given flexibility to mechanical production, 
medicine, war, agriculture, transportation and distance communication. 
This is natural since basic sciences of psychology and sociology are so 
much less developed than physics (for mechanical production and trans- 
portation), chemistry, (medicine, agriculture), biology (medicine, agri- 
culture), etc. Apparently scientific procedure will affect study of objectives 
of education later than administration and methods. Hence still persist 
many problems : 

a. Schools develop routine and customary standards which sub- 
sequent generations accept unintelligently — methods of recitation, 
size of classes, subjects of study, length of school day, week 
and year, disciplines, etc. But these routines are often ill-adapted 
to individuals or special groups. 

b. Supporters of established routines oppose with the pertinacity 
of all the faithful (in the sociological sense) rival types of 
learning. (Note battles of vernaculars with literary classics, 
of science with the classics, of vocational education with aca- 
demic education, and of modern with antique methods in almost 
every particular field.) 

c. But education as a guild or commercial function (private 

schools, guild schools, church schools, etc.) has usually been 
more variable than it is likely to be under state control until 

98 



MECHANISMS OF EDUCATION 99 

governmental agencies develop appreciations and methods of 
scientific evaluation. 
d. Note development during last century of uniformitarianism 
(France, Russia, Japan, New York state), compulsory attend- 
ance, "standard" sizes of classes and rooms, state or municipal 
courses of study, centralized text book production, fixed (and 
sometimes mechanical) grading, mechanical supervision, etc. 
But note present reactions due to public interest in "the indi- 
vidual" and in more "socialized" schools. Concrete manifesta- 
tions found in "elective courses" and "subjects," and local ex- 
perimentation as well as in devotion paid to such catch phases 
as "independence of the text book," "adapting education to 
local needs," "relating education to life of the child," etc. 

3. Enlargement of administrative units (from district to town and city, 
from town to county, from county to state, and now perhaps from state 
to nation) or "centralization" is inevitably accomplished by mechanizing 
tendencies, the injurious effects of which can only be counteracted by 
vigilance and work. Bureaucracies and bureaucratic methods flourish in 
centralized governmental procedures of every sort (except when the "new 
broom" temporarily sweeps clean). Civil service, permanent tenure, pro- 
motion by seniority, administration by "document," division of responsi- 
bility, decision by boards, all contribute to inflexibility, lack of adaptation, 
extension of influences of "personality." 

Nevertheless increasing centralization in all forms of public education 
is probably inevitable — for sake of expert service, economy of large 
operations, comprehensive planning. Hence evil effects of "dead" mechani- 
zation must be anticipated or sought out and corrected — perhaps by other 
mechanisms. 

B. Adjustments of Individuals to Groups 

1. Adjustments of the individual to the group relationship are instinc- 
tive in only some cases, e.g., pairing of sexes, submission of infant to 
parents, formation of children's sociability groups (including more dur- 
able "gang"), etc. In most cases, adjustment involves conflict of de- 
sires and felt interests — individualistic with social, near with remote, 
concrete with abstract. Processes by which the group absorbs and shapes 
the individual are described as "social control." 

a. Formulate statements descriptive of current controversies, 

"state vs. individual," "individualistic vs» collectivistic," ends 
of social organization. 

b. Most social groups are longer lived than the individual mem- 
bers. Again, they have a solid corporate character, while in- 
dividual members come and go. They evolve customs, creeds, 
formularies, codes, initiations, penalties, — and extensive me- 
chanism to lure and hold the individual. (Illustration from ex- 
perience.) 



100 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

c. Devices of social control utilize, amongst other means: (a) 

the social and cooperating instincts of the individual (and his 
dislike for exclusion, non-recognition) ; {b) his tendency to 
imitate or from suggestion to form attitudes, sentiments, 
valuations; (c) his devotion to his own interests, success of 
life, personal aggrandizement, dislike of the strange and of 
the foreigner; {d) his uncritical attitude in face of mass sug- 
gestion. (Illustrate from socialization of small children.) 

d. The educational forces employed by the group in adopting new 
members are in the nature of by-education; but, on occasion, 
direct education is provided. Illustrate from initiations (Hut- 
ton Webster, Sutherland), ceremonial routines, education for 
communion, schools for citizenship. 

e. Certain characteristics of the individual, more or less beyond 

his personal control, are often held as prerequisite for specific 
group membership; e.g., birth, rank, race, art talent, courage 
in combat, wealth, craft, skill. (Illustrate.) 

/. Means of control exerted on behalf of certain types of groups 
may ibe anti-social, that is, divisive of the larger society, e.g., 
birth standards, sumptuary standards, fostering of inter-group 
antagonisms, etc. (Give concrete examples.) 

2. The individual who fits most readily into a variety of the groups 
approved at any time, possesses as products of heredity, environmental 
surroundings, and education a variety of recognizable qualities (habits, 
attitudes, valuations, appreciations, insights) which, when developed to 
socially approved degrees, are called virtues. We say of the approved 
individual that he is sincere, obedient, industrious, adaptable, conscien- 
tious, honest, truthful, etc. (List 100 "virtues" and their "disapproved" 
opposites.) (Define characteristics of the "superior" farmer; minister; 
unskilled laborer; single woman — age 30-50 — of wealth and culture.) 
(Illustrate different grades or kinds of: "loyalties"; "honesties"; "tolera- 
tions"; "altruisms.") (Show how doctrine of "formal discipline" vitiates 
most current discussion of moral education or character formation.) 

a. Groups formed for one function often exercise others. Or 
membership of one group may be completely decomposed for 
exercise of other function, (cf. Giddings, constituent and 
component societies.) (Illustrate in current life.) 

h. Interlacings of groups and extension of areas within which 
mutuality of interest and possibilities of cooperation are per- 
ceived give us enlarged societies, (cf. Large nations, "Chris- 
tianity," "Catholicism," "banking interests," "Wagnerites," 
"golf players," "international socialism," "pan-slavism," "anti- 
saloon forces.") (Add examples from experience.) 

c. Usually, the individual holds a dual position towards each 
group of which he is a member: his interests, at least in 



MECHANISMS OF EDUCATION Id 

a degree and for the time, are apparently impeded by it — 
his freedom is restricted, his services are chained, assessments 
are levied, exercise of likings is limited; and, per contra, his 
interests are promoted through the reinforcement given by the 
group. (Give concrete illustrations.) 

d. Similarly, different kinds of groups tend to claim exclusive 
interest and energy of individual. Note contemporary examples 
of competition for interests and energy of individual ; vocation 
vs. home, church, political party, sociability, culture, etc. (Give 
concrete illustrations.) 

e. Again, small groups tend usually to strengthen at expense of 
larger groups exercising same function, unless artificially re- 
strained, (cf. Gang T/s. community; city vs. state; province 
vs. nation ; family vs. community ; clique, party, cult, sect vs. 
large cognate groups.) But external pressure, as well as 
growing internal sense of need, tends to cement small groups 
into larger groups (cf. examples of nation-making, coalescing 
of economic groups, federation of worshipping groups, co- 
operation of cultural and sociability groups). 

/. Examine the thesis that, in the region of civilized and semi- 
civilized human life, "Darwinian selection" and "survival of 
the fittest" may be much more a struggle between forms of 
group organization (their effectiveness in promoting capacity to 
survive) than among individuals composing the groups. (111. 
from the well ordered state of weak individuals against the 
poorly ordered one of strong individualists ; regulars vs. mob, 
etc. Explain evolution of monogamous family, public adminis- 
tration of defence and law, business corporations, trade unions, 
hierarchical religious organizations, political party machinery, 
etc. What are contemporary examples of societies and social 
forms of organization being "pushed to the wall"?) 

g. Man's "group life" was doubtless once very simple. He is 
supposed to have evolved from an "animal" (perhaps gre- 
garious) ancestor having no "social inheritance." The numer- 
ous changes he has undergone (e.g., upright position, enlarge- 
ment of brain, hand of development, loss of hair, acquisition of 
speech, invention of tools, objective conservation of experience, 
monogamy, prolongation of infancy, specialization of occupa- 
tions, religious life) have all imposed severe strains upon his 
biological inheritance which is readjusted slowly. 

h. The "institutions" of the group life of man — those composites 
of customs, laws, and knowledge, with objective creations 
(buildings, art products, improvements of land, boundaries, 
languages) which survive while individuals come and go — 
serve in large part as the means of studying sociology. 



102 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

i. History is a kind of social science, occupied chiefly with the 
scientific description of the "singular" event, the extensive or 
detailed fact. It is, therefore, a reservoir of the materials 
of sociology which is occupied chiefly with the "general," with 
"causal relationships," and, ultimately, with prediction and con- 
trol. (Compare "descriptive geography" with physiography, — 
in its interpretative aspects ; surveys of production, mining areas, 
weather, population — census, migration, etc, respectively, with 
economics, geology, meteorology and the sociology of pop- 
ulation distribution, mobility etc.) (Johnson, H., The Teaching 
of History, 1-28.) 

3. Of especial importance to education (as a field of applied science) 
are those contributions of sociology which explain (a) the character and 
functioning of the social and of the (apparently) individualistic instincts 
in man; (b) the varieties of means and methods effective in "social con- 
trol"; (c) the character of the normal "hierarchical" organization in 
any form of group life — economic, sociability, religious, political (includ- 
ing defensive), cultural — which gives optimum results (to the individual 
and to his fellows — his society) ; (d) the actual significance of the values 
implicit in the words "democracy," "culture," "freedom," "righteousness," 
etc.; (e) the survivals of primitive life (in biological inheritance and in 
social inheritance) which necessarily limit and predetermine, in a degree, 
education; and (/) the character and scope of those "improvements" in 
society which are to be achieved chiefly through specified forms of edu- 
cation. 

a. We must look chiefly to psychology, of course, for explanation 

of the possibilities of, and limitations to, the educability of the 
individual. But, as regards the qualities of chief significance 
to the group life (the expansion, modification or repression of 
the social instincts— sociability, religiosity, conscience, coopera- 
tion, honor, anger, sex, conformity, leadership, worship of un- 
seen, etc. ; the promotion of acquisitiveness— wealth getting and 
conserving; development of vocational productiveness; pro- 
motion of civic attitudes; etc.) we probably need a special 
"social psychology." 

b. But "educational sociology" must look chiefly to the front. It 
is primarily concerned with the definition and comparative 
evaluation of a long series of educational goals which are so 
concrete and practicable that each can be made the conscious 
objective of educational effort, and which, at the same time, 
are so closely and integrally related to the various highest 
"goods" that we can now conceive (in relation to realities,^ not 
"castles in Spain"), that there shall not be excessive misdi- 
rection or waste of effort in realizing them. 



MECHANISMS OF EDUCATION IO3 

C. Problems for Study 

1. Supply from experience realistic "case" materials to illustrate each 
of the following: 

a. The processes by which, at twenty years of age, a youth has 
•been assimilated to his family's standards of language, man- 
ners, religious views, social standards. 

b. The conditions under which man at maturity has "grown away 

from" his family's desires and standards of morals, religion, 
politics. 

c. The processes by which a man who at thirty is a devout Metho- 

dist has probably reached that stage. 

d. H. B. at fifty-five is a rich, powerful and aggressive railway 
president. He has a style-loving family, is a member of an 
aristocratic city church, and an active member of several 
clubs. His boyhood was spent on a small farm where the 
economic struggles of his parents were severe. What have 
been probably strongest "socializing" influences in his life to 
date? 

e. The processes which make a Vermont boy probably a "good" 

Republican, and a similar South Carolina boy a "good" Demo- 
crat. 

/. The processes by which the daughter of a prosperous, urban 
dwelling New England family of "old stock" becomes at forty 
a "lady" of characteristic physique, ideals, and habits. 

g. The process by which young immigrant finally becomes a 
"good" American. 

2. Give instances where groupings formed for vocational, political re- 
form, or other purposes, have gradually substituted sociability and other 
functions, e.g., Masons, the "Ancient and Honorable Artillery," clubs, 
cultural associations. 

3. Describe the mechanisms now necessary to the operation of : the 
Republican party, the Red Cross, the Catholic church, the American Fed- 
eration of Labor, The Rochdate Cooperative Societies, and the Daughters 
of the Revolution. 

4. Give from experience realistic "case" materials to illustrate: 

a. Difficulties encountered by a man in giving expected time and 
energy respectively to his family, vocation, church, political 
party, clubs, community associates (sociability), cultural asso- 
ciations, and to himself for health, meditation, rest. 

b. Conflict of demands on prosperous and intelligent woman of 

family, church, civic associates, cultural associates, etc. 

c. Tendency of individuals to give of themselves excessively to 

one type of group activity. 



104 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

d. Difficulties of separating young people from primitive groupings 
and of allying them to more important adult groupings. 

5. Two large nations confront each other with such opposed interests 
that war always threatens. Discuss probable effects in each nation on : 
centralization of government; subordination of religious strife; adminis- 
tration of justice; expenditures for education; promotion of public sani- 
tation; development of individual initiative; appearance and activity of 
radical political parties. 

6. Is it probable that in the North Temperate Zone the following have 
had survival values of importance; and if so, in wbat probable forms 
of success in war, economic production, eugenic fertility, sustaining of 
general health, increase of useful knowledge, maintenance of justice, 
etc.; monogamy, monotheistic worship, subjection of women, hereditary 
aristocracy and rulership, democracy, slavery, separation of church and 
state, public support of education, fine art, private property, written con- 
stitutions, public promotion of scientific research. 

7. Discuss the "scope" of publicly supported education, as found, e.g., 
in a Western State in the United States, in promoting such "social 
values" as health, morals, justice, wealth, security, beauty in life, knowl- 
edge, sociability, etc. 

8. Hence deduce for preliminary consideration, schemes of "aims of 
education" desirable on behalf of : 

a. The "scientifically talented" (in several species). 

b. The artistically talented (in several species). 

c. The very strong of body and average of mind. 

d. The very sociable. 

e. The innately or early biassed criminal or vicious. 
/. The moron. 

g. The intelligent of feeble bodies. 

References: Bagehot, Boaz, Breckenridge, Cannon, Carver, Churchill, 
Wells (1), Cooley (2), Coolidge, Davenport (2), Devine, Dugdale, Gid- 
dings, Huntington (1), Keller, King, Kropotkin, McDougall, Mercier, 
Morris, Oppenheimer, Parmelee, Nietzsche, Putnam, Reid, Riis (1), 
Ross (1), Smith (2), Wells (1). 



CHAPTER XIV 

CONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULA 

A. Sociological Applications 

Among other purposes, the methods and results of educational sociology 
may be applied to: 

1. The determination, in any particular case, of the respective actual 
or possible contributions towards approved ends of development and 
education of: heredity; material environment; social environment 

(agencies of by-education) ; and direct education. 

a. For example, oral communication. By inheritance, the child 

derives vocal organs, aural organs, nervous mechanisms re- 
quired. (Note cases of defective heredity.) Material en- 
vironment gives few special effects. By-education gives defi- 
nite forms of speech — English or French, grammatical or the 
reverse, dialect or pure pronunciation. By-education exerted 
'by many agencies besides home. School functions in : (a) 
correcting defects due to bad by-education in vernacular; (b) 
giving pupils new levels of attainment (voice culture, oratory, 
sentence structure, business voice, etc.) ; and in teaching foreign 
language. 

b. Provide parallel illustrations for: (a) written communication; 

(b) religious creeds; (c) vocational competency (e.g., dentist, 
sailor, bank president, piano playing) ; (d) love of poetry; (e) 
mathematical powers; (/) scientific inquiry. 

2. The evaluation of the contributions of natural inheritance towards 
individual powers, as a basis of determining actual and possible contribu- 
tions of direct education. 

a. What is desirable scope and character of direct education for 
persons born: (a) blind? (b) measurably below the average in 
general mental ability (moron) ? (c) with a clear genius for 
singing? (d) with exceptional capacity for abstract mathe- 
matics ? 

I. What are possible vocational guidance tests? Educational 
guidance tests? 

c. What bearings on educational programs should result from 
knowledge that certain individuals are by heredity: (a) pre- 
disposed to tuberculosis? (b) of ancestry with long record 

105 



I06 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

for viciousness and immorality? (c) predisposed to expression 
in plastic arts? 

3. The evaluation of contributions towards optimum development and 
education of results of agencies of by-education. 

a. What are normal contributions of specified types of homes to 

(a) general knowledge? (b) body postures? (c) dietetic habits 
and tastes? (d) appreciation of plastci arts? (e) vocabularies, 
ages 12 to 14? (/) ideals of honesty? (g) habits of honest 
practice? (h) vocational homemaking competency for girls? 
(0 vocational competency for farm boys? 

b. What are contributions of normal play in hilly rural region 

for boys 12-14 (or other specified age or sex) to: (a) general 
muscular development? (b) various habits of initiative, self- 
reliance, etc.? (c) sex continence? (d) nature knowledge? 

c. What are contributions as by-education of wage-earning em- 
ployment of: (a) girls, 16-20, in well-managed department 
store, as regards: morals? health? experience capable of func- 
tioning later in homemaking? useful general intelligence? (b) 
boys, in telegraph messenger service? (c) girls, as helpers or 
workers in textile factory? 

d. What are valuable contributions (or reverse) towards (specified 
classes) of church worship? Shakespearean plays? modern 
dramas? moving pictures? free public library reading? the 
afternoon newspapers? 

4. The evaluation of actual or possible contributions of specialized 
forms of agencies of direct education. 

a. Describe twenty different types of schools and alleged aims of 
each. 

B. Definitions 

1. General definitions. The offerings of subjects, courses, supervised 
activities, etc., made by a school on behalf of a designated group of 
learners w^ill be called a curriculum. A strand or element of the curricu- 
lum consisting of organized materials of instruction, etc., here called 
subject. A stated portion of a subject is called a course. The subjects 
(or for a stated period, courses) taken by an individual student is 
designated student's program. 

a. Examples of curricula: kindergarten; elementary school (first 
six grades); junior high school industrial arts; junior high 
school modern language; high school college preparatory; high 
school general ; high school general for first two years ; high 
school technical; high school commercial; blind children 12-16; 
morons 12-25; illiterate negroes 18-25; day industrial school, 
machinists; day industrial school, printers; day industrial 
school, weavers; day commercial school, stenographers; day 
commercial school, salesgirls; agricultural school, gardeners; 
agricultural school, poultrymeu; homemaking day school, girls 



CONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULA IO7 

14-17; homemaking day school, girls 20-24; evening extension 
vocational school, stenographers; short-course day extension 
agricultural school, gardeners; elementary school teaching; 
high school teaching, modern language; agricultural school 
teaching; school nursing; medical; blind school teaching; uni- 
versity extension (cultural), etc. 

b. Examples of subjects; kindergarten stories, primary reading 

(mechanics) ; elementary school playground; junior high school 
French; junior high school scouting; senior high school gen- 
eral science; stenographers* English language; carpenters' 
drawing; gardeners' soils; college (liberal) government; etc. 

c. Examples of courses: first grade nature study; eighth grade 

oral reading; eleventh grade physics; first year college algebra; 
adult illiterates, beginners' reading; etc. 

d. A curriculum ordinarily consists of the offerings (with alter- 
natives) designed for a group of students exhibiting modal 
capacities, interests, prospective needs. If curriculum is pre- 
scriptive in detail for all, then curriculum and students' pro- 
gram are identical. But ordinarily individual students over 
twelve years of age will be given alternative subjects (and 
courses) within one curriculum; and, where school offers two 
or more curricula, students may be permitted to make pro- 
gram (of studies or courses) from several curricula. 

e. Note abandonment of: classical course, commercial course, etc. 

2. "Teaching unit" will be employed to designate portion of offering 
whereby particular objective is to be accomplished. This objective may 
be simply one step or stage towards larger objective. Ordinarily, a "cur- 
riculum" is largest unit; a "course" is a "long unit"; while a course may 
be broken into "short units," such as lessons, exercises, experiments, 
problems, projects, topics, cases, readings, conferences, recitations, re- 
ports, quizzes, inquiries, essays, activities, etc. 

a. The need of sound pedagogical organization of long as well 

as short units as a condition of effective school work should 
be apparent. Much confusion exists here now. Ordinarily, for 
younger learners: (a) the ultimate objectives of curricula and 
courses must be taken on faith; but (b) the proximate ob- 
jectives of short units should be clearly felt and comprehended. 

b. In alpha courses (work, instructing and training towards pre- 
established goals) definite organization of pedagogical units 
necessary. In beta (play, developmental) activities organiza- 
tion units should not be artificial, to interfere with desirable 
spontaneity; but here also, definite organization of units and 
equally definite organization of means of flexibility, desirable, 
(cf. Handbook of Scouting, Children's Book of Knowledge, 



I08 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Popular Science, Popular Mechanics, Young People's Guides 
to Reading, etc., for good examples.) 

c. What are probabilities that most teaching units are now un- 

sound ? Query as to : length ; integration with best learning 
capacities ; integral character as regards approaches, concen- 
tration, proliferation, application; objectivity of resulting 
achievement. 

d. Probability that "correlation" can be achieved only within short 
teaching unit. Correlation of subjects (or courses) not prac- 
ticable (except by creating new subject out of two or more 
previously independent). But within short unit possible to 
have major specific objective, and minors from other fields 
(e.g., learning to use camera, application of knowledge of 
optics; writing essay, use of spelling, etc.). 

c. Lessons, exercises, experiments, recitations, well understood 
units. "Problem" understood in mathematics ; imperfectly else- 
where; a valuable unit for "thinking" activities. "Project" 
designates activity chiefly concerned with visible concrete 
achievement (and may be classified as "school execution"; 
"home execution"; "observation and report"; etc.). "Case" 
designates larger unit of individual investigation, report, etc. 
"Reading" self-explanatory. 

/. Determine, hypothetically, suitable units for boys, 12-16, in 
physical development; rifle shooting; towards useful adult 
forms of honesty, truthfulness, initiative; correction of defects 
of speech ; towards good writing (composition) ; right ideals 
of citizenship in local aflFairs ; utilization of good in con- 
temporary literature; humane treatment of animals; develop- 
ment of "mechanical" interests; development of musical ap- 
preciation; development of power of sustained oral presen- 
tation of ideas to audience ; mastery of reading French ; mastery 
of important stages of machinist's trade. 

3. Distinction between vocational and "liberal" objectives. 

a. Note tihat popular usage always clearly recognizes vocational 
competency in men and women 20-50, but without discriminat- 
ing or evaluating sources — heredity, environment, by-education, 
direct education. 

b. Popular usage also recognizes results of "liberal" education. 
"Cultivated," "well informed," "urbane," "possessed of broad 
vision," "tolerant," are some approved characterizations. 

c. First positive measure of vocational power is ability to produce 

exchangeable goods or service — goods or service for which 
other producers are willing to exchange their goods and 
service. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULA IO9 

d. Second positive measure : to continue as effective producer over 
long series of years. 

e. Third positive measure: ability to adjust — advance, shift, re- 

gress — in productive ability as circumstances warrant — youth 
to prime, prime to old age, follower to leader, routine to ex- 
ecutive, "generalist" to specialist. 

/. 'Fourth positive measure : ability to render in and through voca- 
tion, civic service — service not compensated for in command 
over exchangeable goods. (Certain forms of professional 
service, superior and conscientious grades of workmanship, 
fidelities and other qualities in work beyond those "nominated 
in the bond.") (Note that military service — except full-time 
specialist — civic service, family service — except specialist — and 
general contributions to social order and progress are not here 
linked with vocation; these are "civic service.") 

g. First negative measure of vocational power; ability to main- 
tain health and strength against (and sometimes through) 
pressures and specializations of vocation. 

h. Second negative measure: ability so to adjust and control pro- 
ductive efforts as to insure development and conservation of 
optimum cultured personality. 

i. Third negative measure: ability so to adjust and control pro- 
ductive work as to insure optimum discharge of civic and 
family social obligations. 

4. "Power" will be used to designate in general abilities to perform 
useful work, profitable execution. "Power" in penmanship, spelling, 
reading French, using trigonometry in engineering, setting type, draughts- 
manship, teaching primary school, etc., denotes abilities to execute results, 
in accordance with certain standards accepted by society. 

5. "Capacities" will be used to denote ability to "receive," to appre- 
ciate, to assimilate. Capacity in literature, art, play, hygiene, history, 
etc., thus designates in each case appreciation of some estimated or 
evaluated degree. 

6. Ultimate values of "liberal" or "general" education are conceived as : 
(o) development of natural powers and capacities in approved direc- 
tions by simple provision of suitable environment and stimulation; and 
(ft) artificially controlled promotion of capacities for appreciation, and 
execution along non-vocational lines. (Illustrate from specific food 
habits, play, competitions, tastes, interests, moral standards, sentiments, 
attitudes, capacities.) 

a. Indicate popular tests of liberal education. 



no EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

C. Individual Programs of Study 

1. Offerings of all schools tend to increase, thus giving problems of 
election of subjects and courses in framing individual programs — for 
year or longer period. 

a. Note tendency of older colleges and secondary schools to 
permit election among curricula (often called "courses") each 
relatively rigid. Analyse theory of "compulsory concentration 
and dispersion" of studies. 

b. Review arguments for fixed curricula. "Elements of know- 
ledge," "five windows of the soul," "fundamentals of the social 
inheritance," "culture of the educated man." 

c. Review history of "the elective system" in school and college. 

Supposed advantages and disadvantages. "Of less importance 
what one studies than how one studies." 

d. Contrast possibilities of election in vocational and in liberal 
education. 

2. Principles to be employed in guidance of election among educational 
offerings not yet established. Following proposals are hypothetical: 

a. During period of compulsory attendance school should define 
and require in substantial measure those forms of instruction 
and training (especially of alpha types) that, in some cases 
neutralizing differences, and in some cases compensating for 
deficiencies, of by-education, will promote group homogeneity. 
(Illustrate from speech, written language, general science, his- 
tory, social science, hygiene, geography, inter-racial and inter- 
national knowledge, art appreciation, utilities appreciation, 
etc.) 

b. During voluntary school attendance (post-compulsory period) 

it is to be assumed that all working time of learner Is profit- 
ably employed; hence that residue for school (full-time or 
part-time by approved arrangement) is profitably employed ; but 
where choice of offerings is sought by learner, burden of proof 
rests on school to establish reasons for refusing learner choice 
in any case, where administrative conditions permit. 

c. Where certificate or diploma attesting completion of require- 
ments for attainment of goal of pre-established significance and 
worth — "elements of first six grades," "mastery of modern 
language," "pre-vocational subject," "two-year general high 
school," "stenographers' vocational," etc., then the necessary 
elements should he prescribed. 

d. The right of the state to good citizenship, vocational powers, 
powers of national defence, etc., paramount. Hence when for 
specified groups, probable attainments in these directions are 
matters of demonstration, right of prescription acknowledged. 
But, except for compulsory attendance, compulsory minimum 



CONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULA III 

standards of scholarship, and military training, no standards 
of worth now demonstrated in proposed prescription — in sec- 
ondary education — of, e.g., English language, mathematics, for- 
eign language, etc. 

e. A minimum knowledge of English language, English literature, 
history, geography, etc., having been approved as desirable for 
normal citizenship, deficiencies therein might well be made a 
basis for prescribed studies as condition of continuance in 
higher schools — equivalent to familiar practice of "working off 
conditions." 

3. Problems of framing curricula and programs. 

a. As basis for initial discussion, assume: (a) large, rich, pros- 
perous schools open to pupils 14 to 18 years of age; (t) 
school offerings measured on basis of total number of clock 
hours ordinarily required by normal pupils; (c) school year 
of 200 days of eight clock hours each (8 to 12 and 1 to 5) 
to embrace all assigned study, sufficient physical play, or work 
for health purposes, etc.; ((/) that, unless otherwise specified, 
all studies and activities are non-vocational and are chosen for 
contributions to personal culture, physical development, and 
enlightened citizenship. 

h. List all possible offerings for a given age group (4 to 6; 6 to 
12; 12 to 14; 14 to 16; 16 to 18, etc.) with assumed desirable 
quantitative allowances for each. Then make curricula for 
(designated) types of schools, e.g., rural school of eight grades 
(ages 6-14) ; i;ural school of four grades (ages 6-10) ; poorly 
equipped urban school, with teacher for each grade; richly 
equipped urban school, teacher having all work one grade 
(except industrial and household arts, age 12-14) ; richly 
equipped kindergarten in city; small junior high school (100 
pupils, ages 12-14) ; rich junior high school on 6-3-3 basis; rich 
and large high school offering liberal education, ages 14-16; 
and various types of vocational schools. 

c. Formulate principles and conditions to govern in the making 
of individual programs. 



CHAPTER XV 

OBJECTIVES IN DEVELOPMENTAL CONTROL OF CHILDREN, 

AGES ONE TO FOUR 

1. Children under four develop in powers and acquire social inheritance 
in large measure if only means of nurture and by-education are suitable. 
For children normally environed, no direct schooling is deemed necessary. 

a. Note increasing insistence on child's receiving a "fair start" in 
heredity and in prenatal care of mother. Examples of eugenic 
proposals and of mother care. Problem of the illegitimate; of 
wage-earning mother. 

b. Problems of determining normal nurtural environment as to: 
food nurture; shelter; clothing; ventilation; cleanliness; sleep; 
physical exercise; facilities for play; facilities for association. 

c. What are normal standards of by-education for: speech; body 

movement; moral behavior; sociability (with mother; father; 
older sisters and brothers ; babies ; neighbors of equal age) ; 
manners ; habits of inhibition ; general knowledge ; games, 
plays; intellectual nurture (stories, information) ; work. 

d. Possibilities of "hot-house" forcing. Probable reasons for ; 
against. Fields for experimentation. 

e. Possibilities of using "play" activities without strain to achieve 
useful ends in civilized society. Typewriting machines as use- 
ful plaything. Early training to read. Mastery of a foreign 
language. Acquisition of useful knowledge instead of fables. 
Correct vernacular. Simple useful arts (gardening, cooking) 
as part of play. 

/. Review of proposals of Montessori. 

g. Problems of day nurseries to offset deficiencies in nurture and 
by-education caused by wage-earning of mothers. Review of 
practices. Ideals for public action? Provision of widows' 
pensions. 

h. Theories as to community cooperation in care of children 
under four. 

i. Park kindergartens. 

/. /Problems of providing for orphaned children. 

k. Problem of state or other socially corporate assistance, correc- 
tion, or direction of nurture and by-education. Examples of 
present control of health, economic conditions, housing, milk 
supply, cruelty and neglect. 

112 



CHAPTER XVI 

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF 

CHILDREN, AGES FOUR TO SIX 

1. Public school system historically made few attempts at education of 
children under six to eight years of age. Kindergarten and other analo- 
gous agencies recent developments. 

a. Apparently two unlike ideals operative : 

(a) Protection and furtherance of development of children 
of poor environment and provision of faciHties for by- 
education; and 

(6) Provision of special forms of positive education for chil- 
dren normally circumstanced. 

b. Compare creche (France), day nursery, infant school (Eng- 
land), and certain stages of dame school. 

2. Problems of social need of schools or other public agencies in educa- 
tion and development of children 4 to 6 still important. What functions 
here does society need? Does kindergarten organization and program 
meet them? 

a. What evidence that substantial good can be accomplished for 
children in approximately normal environment by supplemental 
efforts of a school? 

b. Answer depends upon social value of stimulated or directed 

(deviated from, or intensified "natural") development. 

c. Proibable need of assistance in development for children im- 

perfectly environed. Agency meeting this need should (a) 
possess standards of normal environment; and (b) in case 
of particular groups determine existing deficiencies. 

d. For example, basing deductions in part upon ancestral conditions 

to which young have for ages conformed and in which they 
developed; and in part upon observations of children's present 
development, we can assume the following elements, in de- 
grees to be determined, essential to growth: 
(1) Food; (2) rest and sleep; (3) shelter— housing and 
clothing for rest and play; (4) facilities for physical play 
— ground space, sunshine, steeps, sand, grass, running 
water, trees, hiding places, portable objects, toys, domestic 
animals, older companions, younger companions, equal age 

113 



114 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

companions; (5) facilities for intellectual play and 
growth, tellers of stories, singers of songs, satisfiers of 
curiosity; (6) facilities for social play and growth, com- 
forters, lullaby-singers, protectors, leaders, playmates, 
chums; (7) teachers — in by-education of manners, etc.; 
(8) agencies for protection of health, insurance of hy- 
gienic surroundings, etc. 
€, To what extent does kindergarten now compensate for deficien- 
cies in particular elements indicated above? How far should 
it? How could it? 
/. What changes of organization would be necessary to make 
kindergarten an agency of compensatory function? Allocation 
to : rich communities ? poor city communities ? poor rural com- 
munities? special type of families? 
g. Review above in light of contemporary demands of society for 
guarantees of "a more protected childhood and a better start in 
life." 

h. Analyze other possible approaches, e.g., improvement of home 
and (by some social effort) freeing mother to be more truly 
caretaker and educator of children. 

t. Special problem of wage-earning mother. 

/. Special problem of immigrant mother unassimilated to Ameri- 
can speech and standards of living. 

k. Special problems of defective and dependents: (fl) blind; (6) 
deaf; (c) morons; (</) cripples; (^) orphaned. 

/. Possible functions of school or community nurse ; of extension 
classes for mothers. 

A. Certain Fundamental Sociological Facts 

1. Society has made few attempts to establish schools to teach children 
of 4 to 6 the subjects — reading, writing, numbers, catechism — for which 
primary schools exist. 

2. Children from 4 to 6, as in the case of children still younger, depend 
on the home for the chief conditions of nurture, physical, moral, cultural. 
(Give instances in: language, bodily growth, physical habits, dressing 
habits, moral behavior and manners, towards equal age companions, to- 
wards elders, towards animals — play activities, likings for music, story 
interests.) Environment adjacent to home contributes something (bad 
or good) and much in case of neglected children. 

3. Aims of kindergarten have been variously stated. Sometimes it 
seems designed to offer forms or extensions of education that no home 
could normally give; at others to compensate for manifest deficiencies 
in home environment. Philanthropists establish kindergartens first in 
slums ; but the state often provides them for prosperous communities 
first. 



EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, FOUR TO SIX 1X5 

4. School authorities seem uncertain as yet relative to aims of kinder- 
gartens, hence support is irregular. More definite information is needed 
as to desirable aim, optimum school hours, years, school equipment, train- 
ing of teachers, proiba'ble cost, etc. 

B. Working Cases for Study 

Case A. In a certain suburban community are 200 children, ages 4-6, 
living in homes where family standards of living range from $3000' 
^000. Homes are spacious, healthful; grounds abundant, very well 
«uited to physical play; streets are quiet, attractive, safe. These children 
visit and play together freely, normally. Mothers cooperate sensibly 
in play supervision. Children are well nourished and well looked after 
in physical matters generally. Parents use good English, read, play 
music, sing, and tell stories to children generously. Children's parties 
are frequent. Three to five children ranging from one to fifteen years 
are found in each family. Families go to pleasant country environment 
for three months each summer. 

Case B. In a certain crowded tenement district are 200 children aged 
4-6. Homes very small, 2-5 rooms with no central heat, for average fam- 
ily of 4-6 children. No playgrounds except traffic crowded streets, occa- 
sionally a vacant lot (generally preempted by large boys) and tenement 
halls and stairways. Mothers do not "work out," but are very busy 
and can give little "cultural" attention to children. Fathers away from 
home long hours, wage earners on fair wages, supply sufficient food, but 
many of the children have unsatisfactory eating habits. Children subject 
to cummunicable diseases and are ill taught or supervised at home as re- 
gards wet feet, sleep, rest hours, regular eating, etc. Children play vigor- 
ously in their somewhat dangerous environment. Many form bad moral 
habits, profanity, obscene language and conduct, petty theft, bullying, 
ostracism of the timid, quarreling. Mothers have no systematized coopera- 
tion. Families do not "go away" in summer. 

Case C. In a certain rural community are twenty children ages 4-6, 
living within easy walking or transportation distance of each other. Each 
home is built on a small farm generously supplied with yard space, trees, 
outbuildings, barns, domestic animals, running water in brooks, steep 
slopes, and other natural facilities for safe play. Each child can easily 
get one or two playmates. Children are well nourished. Mothers know 
little about hygiene, are hard worked, and slightly capable of stimulating 
intellectual and aesthetic play. Fathers take only slight part in home life. 
No change of environment in summer. Children freely associate with older 
brothers and sisters and "hired men." E^ch home has talking machine 
and good selection of records. 

Case D. Children of city dwelling (widowed "outworking" mother). 
(Students will supply details for typical cases.) 

Case E. "Only child" in rich urban home ($5000 standard, up) work 
done by servants, etc. (Students will supply details of typical cases.) 



Il6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Cases F to M, (To be supplied by students.) 

C. Problems for Study 

1. Assuming that in all these cases the children will be required to 
attend school until at least 14 years of age, is it desirable, that public funds 
be provided to maintain schools for groups under Case A? Why? 

2. Similar questions for one of Cases B to M. 

3. Is it to be assumed that a school for groups under Case A will prim- 
arily aim to compensate for deficiencies in development and by-education 
of environment? Or, primarily to give direct education that the homes 
cannot give? Specify particular objectives for each answer. 

4. Similiar questions for one of Cases P to M. 

5. What are possible, practicable, and desirable objectives of physical 
education in schools for groups under Case A? Specify as to: health 
oversight, instruction in hygiene, training in physical training, hygienic 
practices, enlargement of play interests and opportunities, reaction on home 
oversights and practice, etc. To realize these c^bjectives how much school 
time — how many hours daily, for how many days in week, for how many 
weeks in year (including summer) should be required? Indicate principal 
devices of administration and method. Estimated annual cost per indi- 
vidual ? 

6. Similiar questions for one of Cases B to M. 

7. What are possible, practicable and desirable objectives of cultural 
education (intellectual and aesthetic) in schools under Case A. Specify 
as to stories, music, nature study, plastic art, dancing, pictures, craft or 
hand construction, "mental training," dressing, standards of utilization, 
better English, etc. What time should be required to realize these ob- 
jectives? Indicate principal devices of administration and method. 
Estimated annual cost per individual. 

8. Similiar questions for one of Cases B to M. 

9. What are possible, practicable and desirable objectives of social 
(moral and civic) education in schools for groups under Case A? 
Specify as to : provision of special facilities for social play, cooperative 
enterprise, formation of moral habits, establishment of moral ideals, im- 
parting of civic knowledge, etc. Indicate principal devices of method and 
administration. Time required to realize these objectives. Estimated cost. 

10. Similar questions for one of Cases B to M. 

11. Analyze pros and cons of contention that: "No public or private 
school is needed for children under Case A ; they will get the best possible 
start in life from their present environment." They would certainly lose 
rather than gain from the cramping conditions of an English infant school, 
or old-fashioned kindergarten, and they have no need for the modern 
kindergarten. 

12. Analyze pros and cons for contention that: "For children under 



EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, FOUR TO SIX II7 

Case B it is best that an open air school be provided in park not too re- 
mote to which children shall be taken in company assembled by custodians 
(or "teachers") at their homes and conveyed through streets; that hours 
should be from 8 to 11:30 and 2 to 5 daily except Sundays and when 
weather is prohibitive (under what conditions would weather be called 
prohibitive?) and including summer months; that chief attention would 
be given to providing conditions for physical play and training in hygiene; 
and that the whole should be under public support." 

13. "In crowded cities it is more important that kindergartens should be 
in session during July and August than during April and May." Com- 
ment. 

14. "It is more important that children from 2 to 5 should be in kinder- 
garten than children from 4 to 6 (in crowded poor areas)." Comment. 

15. Could we defend the systematic teaching of reading or number in 
kindergartens ? 

16. Students formulate other theses for consideration. 

D. Further Problems 

1. A given tenement area of city is inhabited by one thousand families of 
working men of many nationalities ; none of the mothers work for wages. 
The conditions of the children (let us confine ourselves to those between 
four and six years of age) as to food, clothing and shelter are not bad. 
But the children have only streets and ihallways for play grounds, where 
conditions are rough and dangerous. The city authorities ask a social 
economist for recommendations in providing for the one hundred children 
between four and six in this area. He realizes that the regular kinder- 
garten requires a building equipment and land investment of about $300 
per unit of accommodation and at least $40 per year per unit for mainten- 
ance while it can give at the outside only eight hundred hours of super- 
vision or "contact" or immediate influence to its children out of a waking 
time for them about at least 4,000 hours. 

The social economist (we will assume that no educator would conceive 
so radical a program) submits the following proposals. There is a park 
about half a mile away from the remotest part of the district. Four 
acres of this shall be set apart for the exclusive use of these 120 children 
between the hours of 8 :30 A. M. and 5 :30 P. M. This park area is fitted 
with a few large sand piles, a few grass plots, a few teetering logs, and 
some simple blocks and other toys. It has 200 feet of smooth pavement for 
scooters and velocipedes and a bit of steep slope. There are no roofed 
in spaces, except a small cabin for storage of portable toys, rubbers, etc. 

Two "custodians" (we can hardly call them teachers) are to be em- 
ployed for the 120 children. These custodians are over twenty years of 
age, physically strong, sympathetic with children, possessed of "poise," 
and have had special training in "reading of stories." They are expected 
to work eight hours a day six days in a week, forty-eight weeks per year. 



Il8 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

At eight o'clock each morning these "custodians" go through their 
neighborhood with bell or whistle and gather up their charges, and, like 
Pied Pipers, lead them to the park. Here toys are taken from the cabin 
and the flocks turned loose. The custodians seat themselves where they 
can observe proceedings, perhaps taking their knitting, but holding them- 
selves in readiness to check quarrels before they have proceeded too far. 
As the spontaneous games fall, perhaps some of the children will want to 
be "read to." Groups can be formed for this purpose. Conceivably a 
portable talking machine could be provided, but equipment must be kept 
simple and easily cared for. 

At eleven-thirty the procession would return to their homes for lunch 
and one hour of prescribed "lying down" during which the custodians are 
free. At one-thirty or two the above program is repeated, children re- 
maining in the park until five or later. 

In stormy weather the same program would be carried out with these 
exceptions. All parents who habitually kept their children indoors in 
stormy weather would do so now. All those who permitted their children 
to play in wet or cold streets would give their children over to the cus- 
todians. Periods at the park would be shortened, naturally, and it would 
be required that children should be properly attired for wet or cold 
weather. 

Such a "kindergarten" would probably cost, apart from park land in- 
vestment, about $20 per year per pupil. Would it be worth it? What does 
the ordinary kindergarten offer that is worth more? What are the defi- 
ciencies in the environments of these children which such a "school" would 
not meet? Apart from considerations of environment, should these child- 
ren have sound direct or positive education? What? Why? (It is, of 
course, assumed that these children will all give full time to school attend- 
ance between the ages of six and fourteen.) 

2. Miles away from the aibove section is an area occupied by families 
all having incomes of from three thousand to five thousand dollars per 
year. These families live in separate houses with pleasant yards. The 
streets are clean and safe. Families are small, and children have plenty of 
room for play within doors. Mothers cooperate in letting children 
"exchange" play times in each other's houses. Is the kindergarten much 
needed here? What should be its specific aims? These children all play — 
endlessly, almost tirelessly. They form their own groups, have their own 
little ostracisms, imitate mildly (only sometimes) the snobberies of their 
elders, have fierce individual quarrels, and sometimes vendettas (all of 
which are surely more or less educative for "real life," are they not, if 
terminated in due season?). These children have music and form and 
color harmonies in their surroundings in reasonable degree. 

3. Down in a slum area of the city we find a large proportion of wage- 
earning mothers — handicapped by husbands of low competency or dissipat- 
ed habits, or perhaps the husband is dead or "gone." When these mothers 
are away from home — in some cases while the children are sleeping, but 



EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, FOUR TO SIX II9 

most often during the usual play hours — neighbors sometimes exercise 
a rough oversight over the four-to-six-year-old children. These children 
are poorly nourished, poorly protected from weather, and even their sleep- 
ing times are irregular and broken. 

They are seldom clean and poorly learned in manners and deportment. 
Of the better intellectual and moral influences of either father or mother 
(sometimes both) they are usually deprived. 

Forgetting for a moment the limitations in the traditions of both kind- 
ergarten and day nursery, and remembering that the day of eugenic 
control and mother's pension is still far off, w^hat program can the social 
economist provide, at reasonable expense, to "compensate for the deficien- 
cies" of the above environment? Will the kindergarten as we now have 
it be more than a sop, as are summer outings, Christmas dinners, provided 
by charity, and the visiting nurse? Would the park kindergarten as pro- 
posed above suffice? What should be the hours, equipment, specific 
activities of the "school" required? What hours and days and weeks 
sihould it be open? Who should or could teach in it? What will it 
cost? 



CHAPTER XVII 

OBJECTIVES OF SCHOOL EDUCATION, AGES SIX TO NINE 

A. Fundamental Sociological Principles 

1. That one set of objectives (A class, or alpha) are determined 
chiefly by determinate or specifically ascertained requirements of adult 
life (needs for utilization being primary, needs for vocation, incidental at 
this stage) ; 

2. That a second set of objectives (B class or beta) are determined by 
requirements for present development, outcomes in adult life being real 
but indeterminable — including physical, social (moral and civic), cultural 
(intellectual, aesthetic, mental training) ; 

3. That w^here the non-school environment of the child is reasonably 
normal, wholesome, and provided with means and incentives for physical 
play, same age companionship, rest, right hygienic practice, and orderly 
behavior, the school should only moderately seek to provide for these 
needs, on grounds that home and natural surroundings minister better 
than school can to these beta objectives ; 

4. That where the non-school environment of the child is demonstrably 
deficient in normal means and incentives for physical, social and cultural 
growth which school-controlled agencies can supply without unduly lessen- 
ing responsibilities of home, then the school should provide these; 

5. That all normal children will be required to attend school until 14 
years of age, and until such time beyond that as may be required to attain 
the minimum powers (measured in alpha objectives) and general develop- 
ment normally capable of being achieved at 14; 

6. That it is impracticable to secure, and undesirable to attempt to 
secure, any of what is properly called vocational education under the age 
of 14 (it being clearly recognized that vocational guidance is not voca- 
tional education) ; 

7. That it is competent for the state (or society) to prescribe the 
amount and character of school attendance required in the case of any 
individual or group of individuals to reach standards of physical, moral, 
cultural and vocational competency known to be desirable or necessary 
to the individual or the community. 

B. Working Cases 

Case A. Children of crowded, unsanitary tenement environment; non- 
English speaking foreign parentage. Mothers do not work away from 

120 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, SIX TO NINE 121 

home. Compulsory school attendance is enforced until 14. School has 
generous playground, only one accessible. Parents do not leave homes in 
summer. 

Case B. Children 6-9, rural community, of small mixed prosperous 
farms, fairly well educated parents. School accessible by walking. Chil- 
dren have numberless facilities for play at home, and groups of three to 
eight can easily form. They participate in farm chores. Reading matter 
in homes scarce. No vacation trip; but Sunday trips "to town" are 
frequent. 

Case C. Children 6-9, sanitary suburban environment; well educated 
prosperous parents; will go through high school. Homes possess ample 
play area. Children find abundant reading matter in homes. They are 
assured of two months seaside vacation. 

Cases D-I. (Students supply other typical cases, ages 6-9.) 

Assume in each case sufficient competent teaching force and facilities 
properly to secure reasonaible results aimed at; children of average ability 
and sharp distinctions preserved between alpha and beta purposes and 
methods. 

C. Problems for Study 

1. Determine in detail desirable aims of physical education in each case, 
indicating responsibilities respectively of regular teacher, school nurse, 
medical inspector, specialist medical service, playground custodian (where 
provided). Specify aims in physical training, formation of health habits. 
Probable time required. Probable per capita cost of service. 

2. Determine in detail for each case desirable aims of cultural and 
social education, distinguishing sharply between alpha and beta types 
Place, scope, and specific aims of expected reading (mechanics of oral 
and silent), spelling, handwriting, arithmetic. Aims and character of in- 
struction and training proposed in literature (all general reading and orally 
told story), natural science, history, and other social sciences, music, crafts. 
Probable time required. Estimated kinds and amounts of service needed. 
Estimated cost. 

3. For each case determine optimum length of school day, school week, 
school year, and estimate per capita cost of alternative proposals, where 
made. Make assumptions relative to probable disposition in each case of 
child's non-school time and positive or negative educative value of such 
use. 

4. In each case analyze arguments for and against teaching reading 
(mechanics) in first and second grades. 

5. It is not desirable that either handwriting or the reading of a script 
should be formally attempted in the first grade. Criticise. 

6. "No formal arithmetic should be taught in first and second grade." 
Criticise. 



122 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

7. Present schemes of "activities" designed to realize some specific alpha 
aims for the year. 

8. "The school day for Case B should be four hours, either forenoons 
or afternoons, not to exceed 200 days yearly." Criticise. 

9. "The school day for Case A children. Not to exceed eight hours. 
Hours : 7:30-11 :30 and 1 :30 to 5 :30 and for 300 days in the year." Criti- 
cise. 

10. "The school day for Case C, should be four hours, either forenoons 
or afternoons, and should extend to 160 days yearly." Criticise. 

11. "From one-fourth to one-third of the school day for Case A children 
should be given to vigorous physical play on school playgrounds." Criti- 
cise. 

12. "No 'physical play education' is necessary for children under Cases 
B and C." Criticise and show in detail what this would involve. 

13. "The school should make itself a branch library center for children 
of Cases A and B.'' Criticise and show in detail what this would involve. 

14. "Schools should be in regular full-time session for Case A children 
during July and August but alpha work should be discontinued." Criti- 
cise. 

D. Assumptions for Curricula 

As a means of scientific analysis of desirable objectives and curriculums 
for means and methods, homegeneous social requirements are assumed for 
each type of case below, and also optimum conditions and means of 
meeting these case requirements. When acceptable curriculums shall have 
been devised for these, adjustments and accommodations can be worked 
out for variant cases, and limited facilities. Assume therefore : 

1. City amply able and disposed to provide good working facilities, by 
present standards, as regards quality of teachers, departmental teachers 
for playgrounds, manual construction, etc., school buildings, playgrounds, 
general equipment, include provision, where needed, for vacation schools ; 

2. All pupils in cases given below are physically and intellectually nor- 
mal ; 

3. All pupils at age 6 have had no previous schooling; 

4. That time schedules — time of coming to school, leaving school, re- 
cesses, play day — for any grade are quite independent of those for any 
other grade ; 

5. All time allotments and other specifications below to be hypothetical 
and tentative, given primarily to exemplify concreteness of principles ; 

6. That amount or degree of achievement in alpha subjects is assumed 
to be that which experience shows can be accomplished by model groups 
in time given ; 

7. That time given to alpha subjects includes whatever time may be 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, SIX TO NINE 123 

required to give activity basis or concrete apperceptive experience for 
such learning. 

8. Case A. Five hundred children ages 6 to 9 from fairly prosperous 
homes (family incomes $2500-5000); living in separate houses; ample 
yards ; quite safe streets ; mothers intelligent in securing rest, nurture, 
play and ample culture for children; families go to seashore for summer, 
(two or three months) ; children always find it easy to form groups of 
two to ten of nearly their own age for social play and other purposes ; 
no dearth of winter or summer play facilities ; good park nearby. 

9. Case B. Five hundred children, ages 6-9, from crowded city tene- 
ment environment ; families poor ($600-l(X)0 annual income) ; no play- 
grounds, except crowded and unsafe streets, hallways, etc; mothers do 
not "work out," but are very busy and poorly informed as to hygienic 
habits. 

E. Proposed Curricula, Case A 

1. A class (alpha) objectives, (maximum amount that can be effectively 
realized by average children in time given — by whatever experiment 
proves most effective). 

Grade I. Mechanics of Oral Reading > _ 120 hours 

Mechanics of Silent Reading „ _„ — 60 " 

Grade II. Mechanics of Oral Reading, _... 30 " 

Mechanics of Silent Reading « _ _ _ _ „. 60 *' 

Writing „ „.. „ ..- 90 " 

Script Reading _ 30 " 

Spelling, Capitals, Periods, etc 60 " 

Grade III. Mechanics of Oral Reading _ 30 " 

Alechanics of Silent Reading _ 60 " 

Writing - „ 60 " 

Spelling and Composition - 30 

Number - - » 180 " 

2. B class (beta) objectives, required. 

Grade I. Physical Play - - - - 60 " 

Hygiene and Training and Instruction 30 

Manual Construction _ - -. 60 

Class Cultural and Civic Activities _ 30 

Grade II. Physical Play ~ ~ 60 " 

Hygiene - — - 30 

Manual Construction — 60 

Music, Story, Current Events, Memorial days, etc 30 

Grade III. Physical Play 60 " 

Hygiene, etc - 30 

Manual Construction....- 30 

Cooperative Culture, Music, Stories, etc - 60 



124 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

3. B class objectives, optional. 

Grades I, II, III. Physical Play 180 " 

Construction _ _ _ _ 180 " 

Cultural and Social Activities 180 " 

4. Special conditions for Case A. 

a. School year, 180 days, no summer school. 

b. School day: 

Grade I. Required 2 hours daily, 9:30-11:30, optional three 

hours, 1 :30-4 :30 or part thereof. 
Grade II. Required 2J/2 hours daily, 9-11:30; optional three 

hours, 1 :30-4 :30 or part. 
Grade III. Required 3 hours daily, 8:45-11 :45; optional 3 hours 

daily, 1:30-4:30 or part. 

<". B class required activities shall be designed primarily and pur- 
posefully to supplement and reinforce non-school environmental 
activities — to give ideals and knowledges of hygiene that homes 
do not give, to start good games not found locally, to acquaint 
with simple tools not found in homes, to start readings, etc. 

d. Optional B class activities in playground and manual construc- 
tion to be under special teachers. 

F. Proposed Curricula^ Case B 

1. Alpha objectives. 

Grade I. Mechanics of Oral Reading...^ _ ~ ~.. 120 hours 

Mechanics of Silent Reading 60 

Voice Culture, Pronunciation, Accent 30 *' 

^ Hygiene _ — 30 

Grade II. Mechanics of Oral Reading _ _.„ ~ 30 

Mechanics of Silent Reading- 60 

Writing _ 90 " 

Script Reading 30 

Voice, Speech....- 30 

Spelling and Composition _ 60 

Hygiene 60 

Grade III. Mechanics of Oral Reading _ - 30 " 

Mechanics of Silent Reading 60 

Writing „ - 60 " 

Spelling and Composition ~ - 30 

Numbers - •- 180 

Voice, Speech 60 

Hygiene ^^ 

Morals ^^ 

2. Beta objectives required. 

Grades I, II, HI. Physical Play and Nature Study 480 " 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, SIX TO NINE 1 25 

Manual Construction 240 hours 

Civics and Hygiene - _ 120 " 

Cultural (Stories, Music, Counting, Pictures) 
Dramatization _ _ _ - ~ 120 " 

Special conditions for Case B. 

a. School year: 240 days. 

b. School day: Grade I, 5 hours, 8-11 and 2-4; Grade II, 5j^ hours, 
8-11 and 1:30-4; Grade III, 6 hours, 8-11, and 1:30-4:30. 

c. B class activities designated primarily to compensate for defici- 
encies in extra school environment. 

d. Time allotted to A class work to fall most heavily in cool 
weather. 

e. Playground and construction activities to be under special 
teachers. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

OBJECTIVES OF SCHOOL EDUCATION, NORMALS, AGES NINE 

TO TWELVE 

A. Working Assumptions 

The curriculum problems given below presuppose that with a moderate 
amount of research and a willingness to abandon traditions crystallized 
in text books and customs of teachers, we can now : 

1. Greatly reduce (possibly by fifty or seventy-five per cent of present 
offerings) the amounts or extent of "alpha" arithmetic taught. Confining 
it strictly to adult consumers (utilization) needs, and teaching thoroughly 
what we undertake. 

2. Discover, define and, in a given environment (and even for given 
individual) assign relative weightings to such alpha English language 
objectives as pronunciation, correct oral structure usage, correct written 
structure usage, spelling, punctuation, penmanship, oral reading, silent 
reading, scope and flexibility of speaking vocabulary, alphabet usage, oral 
composition (sustained, to audience), written composition, and thereby 
enable ourselves to devise effective methods of teaching and of testing 
immediate and remote functionings of our training and instructions. 

3. Discover, define and adapt for purposes of effective instruction and 
training minimum alpha essentials in social geography as well as in world 
and American history and thereupon experimentally devise methods of 
teaching and of testing immediate and remote functionings of such train- 
ing as will give us genuinely effective education in these fields. 

4. Discover, define and adapt for purposes of effective instruction and 
training towards known ends of appreciation, habit, knowledge, and ideal, 
and adapted to individual needs, specific minimum alpha objectives in 
hygiene and physical training; and, as a result, devise effective means 
of teaching and of testing proximate and remote results. 

5. Discover and make available a wide range of materials to serve very 
flexible courses for beta objectives in nature geography and science, social 
geography, history and science, current events, music, literature, plastic art, 
constructive or practical arts, physical play, physical development, thrift, 
oral reading, debating, written composition, and other lines of development 
along the social and individually wholesome lines of the nature of groups 
of children or individual children. 

B. Problems Needing Investigation 

It is recognized in framing the curriculums below, that our knowledge 
is very limited and uncertain as to: 

126 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, NINE TO TWELVE 1 27 

1. Whether physical work in substantial quantities is essential, in ad- 
dition to whatever amount of play may be made practicable, to the sound 
jphysical development of normal children from 9 to 12 years of age ; and 
if such physical work is essential, how it can be provided by schools in 
urban environments. 

2. What can or should be the specific objectives of moral education in 
schools for the ages of 9-12, beyond the objectives now realized in keep- 
ing the school community wholesome and self-active; and how these 
further objectives, if they could be concretely defined, either as alpha or 
beta objectives, could be realized. 

3. What can or should be the actual objectives in art appreciation 
— music, literature, plastic arts — to be realized for these ages ; and the 
means of realizing them. 

4. What, beyond the specific objectives implied in the subjects given, 
are remoter or more general objectives in mental, physical, or moral 
training or development, practicable to be realized ; or the methods of 
realizing them if they were known and defined. 

5. What are the means of preventing teachers of little inventiveness 
and powers of adaptation from falling into ancient ruts of barren or 
dwarfing formalism in striving after alpha objectives as defined. 

C. Cases and Problems 

1. Village or urban school conditions ; one trained teacher to one-grade 
class of thirty-five; no departmental teachers (except playground super- 
vision) or departmental rooms; ample equipment and resources; attend- 
ance obligatory to 14. 

2. Sharp distinctions possible between alpha objectives and beta ob- 
jectives; and that promotion to 7th grade demands definite mastery of 
alpha standards in essentials (although retarded at 12 also go to junior 
schools, where special classes in alpha subjects are available). 

3. Typical case groups assumed as follows : 

A. Boys and girls from economically low environment (mill work- 
ers, many recent immigrants) ; play facilities, street, small 
school grounds, few vacant lots ; local hygiene and sanitary 

conditions poor, and moral conditions vulgar and coarse ; 
parents religious but of very ordinary culture ; physical con- 
ditions of pupils mixed, in general poor ; only exceptionally 
"intellectual" children will probably remain in school beyond 
15 ; most of the boys will become manual wage earners, girls 
factory hands and 20-24, housewives. 

B. Boys and girls of suburban area, prosperous homes, exception- 
ally high standards of home surroundings, health, morals, fam- 
ily culture ; pupils will probably go through high school ; ma- 
jority of boys will enter commercial callings or professions, 
girls becoming clerical workers, teachers and later housewives. 



128 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

C-M. (Students supply other realistic but as far as practicable 
homogeneous cases). 

4. Conditions. What length of school day; and what number of school 
days per year would you consider "optimum" for Class A? Class B? 
Other classes? 

5. What "subjects'^ should be taught in 4th (or 5th or 6th) grade to 
Class A? Class B? 

6. Arrange for Class A an estimated optimum time distribution sched- 
ule for three grades 3 (years) x 180 (days) x 5 (hours) — or of 2700 
hours divided among the 14 subjects (or more, if provided) given below. 

7. Same for Class B. 

8. Same for other classes. 

9. Divide subjects below into alpha and beta elements, ior each grade, 
showing relative weights by time allotments ; as you would have them for 
Class A. Same for Class B. For other classes. 

10. Define some objectives of elementary education not explicitly re- 
vealed in these "subjects"; what are their known worths for different 
classes of pupils; and by what means to be realized. Include: mainte- 
nance of health; moral improvement; learning physical properties of 
"things" ; learning cooperation, mutual helpfulness, fair play, truthful- 
ness, thrift ; learning self-reliance and responsibility. 

11. Provide analysis of a detailed series of social games, constructive 
projects or other activities; show in each what expected valuable results 
might accrue towards (a) objectives not explicit in the above list of 
subjects; (b) objectives analyzed from the beta phases of these sub- 
jects; and (c) objectives explicitly derived as alpha phases of these sub- 
jects. 

12. What are some powers (of execution) and capacities (for appreci- 
ation) that can be tested at ends of 4th, 5th, 6th grades respectively? 
Is it desirable that alpha or beta ends here be standardized — e.g., con- 
sumers arithmetic, preferences for songs, practice of good hygiene, pro- 
nunciation, basic (alpha) geography? 

13. Propose and locate curriculum modifications to utilize school year 
of 12 months x 20 days x 8 hours for A class pupils. 

D. Curriculum Proposals for Case B (tentative) 
(Assume 240 days x 8 hours ; allotment below in hours to study, recita- 
tion, etc; students will supply for Grades V and VI.) 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, NINE TO TWELVE IZg 

Grade IV Grade V Grade VI 

Alpha Beta Alpha Beta Alpha Beta 



Physical training 80 — 

English language oral 120 — 

English language written 120 — 

English literature — 120 

History and social science - 60 60 

Geography _ .-.. 60 60 

Arithmetic .- 160 — 

Plastic arts - — 240 

Music - — 60 

Practical arts — 240 

Nature study — 60 

Hygiene - „ „ 60. 60 

Physical play. — 480 

Moral and civic training..... 60 — 



CHAPTER XIX 

OBJECTIVES OF SCHOOL EDUCATION, NORMALS, AGES 

TWELVE TO FOURTEEN 

A. Assumptions of Optimum Working Conditions 

1. Assume: central school well equipped with playgrounds, shoprooms, 
library reading rooms ; space for teachers' demonstration garden and five- 
room demonstration home; sufficient properly qualified teachers to re- 
alize reasonable aims; 1,000 pupils "up to grade" and 400 retarded (over 

12, but able to do only lower grade alpha subjects) ; children from varied 
environments and with varied economic prospects ; 180 days yearly at- 
tendance, compulsory to 14; opportunities for miscellaneous wage-earning 
work for boys 14-18 abundant; and for girls 15-18. 

2. Assume: certain subjects "prescribed" for all up to specific standards 
of attainment (unless standard has been met outside) ; all other subjects 
"elective," with reservation that pupil may be excluded from an alpha 
subject if lacking in "good" ability or from a beta, if not interested and 
cooperative ; but each pupil must give specified minimum of time to 
school, also specified minimums to alpha and to beta offerings ; election is 
aided by careful consultation with parents on basis of pamphlet describing 
offerings. 

3. Assume : school year, four sixty-day quarters, 8 hours each day (3 
quarters attendance compulsory to 14) ; all subjects offered on basis of 
hour units (to include study, preparation, recitation; hence, 8 units daily, 
or 480 per quarter) ; not less than 210 hours per quarter required for 
alpha and same for beta subjects. 

4. Assume : school offerings as below, adapted to grades 7 and 8, pro- 
gressive from 6th grade where suitable, (special provision for retarded 
children) (figures on right, hours of study and recitation per year, on 
quarter basis). 

B. JvNiOR School Offerings for Normals 



100 English language 

101 Oral reading 

102 Silent reading 

103 Voice training _ 

104 Pronunciation, etc. 

105 Spoken vocabulary building 

106 Oral composition 



7th G 
Alpha 


irade 
Beta 


8th Grade 
Alpha Beta 


60 





60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 


_.-- 30 


— 


30 


— 


- 30 


— 


30 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 



130 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, TWELVE TO FOURTEEN I3I 

7th Grade 8th Grade 

Alpha Beta AJpha Beta 

107 Correct structure, oral _ 60 — 60 — 

108 Spelling 60 — — — 

109 Handwriting ._ - 6Q — 60 — 

110 Written composition _ 120 — 120 — 

111 Correct structure (applied gram- 

mar written) — 60 — W — 

112 Alphabet for ready use 30 — 30 — 

200 Foreign language 

201 Oral French 180 — 180 — 

202 French elementary reading 180 — 180 — 

203 French grammar and composition — 180 — 180 — 

204 Oral Spanish . „ 180 — 180 — 

205 Spanish elementary reading 180 — 180 — 

206 Latin _ 180 — 180 — 

301 'English literature 

301 Miscellaneous, current — _ _ — 90 — 90 

302 Miscellaneous, special field (poetry, 

biography, home reading, etc.) — 90 — 90 

303 Selected classics - „... 60 — 60 — 

400 Social science . — — 

401 Community civics — .- - — 90 — — 

402 State and national government - — — — 90 

403 World ihistory, readings (beta 

phases) „ _ — 90 — 90' 

406 American history, basic facts .- — — 60 — 

500 Geography - __ — 

501 Geography, basic facts (alpha 

phases) — - — 90 — 60 — 

502 Geography, general readings (beta 

phases) _ ~ _ - _ — 90 

503 Geography ■ (commercial), readings — — 

504 Geography, methods of finding — — 

600 Mathematics - - -.- ~ ~ 

601 Consumers mathematics (units be- 

yond first 6 grades) _ 60 — 

602 Algebra (college preparation 180 80 

603 Plane geometry (college prepara- 

tion) „ _ _ _ 180 

604 Household arithmetic (prevocational 

for girls) - _ .- 90 — 90 

605 Commercial mathematics 90 — 90 

606 Industrial mathematics — -.... 90 — 90 

607 Agricultural mathematics _ 90 — 90 

608 "Appreciation" readings — 90 — 



— 


60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


60 




60 


— 



120 


— 


120 


60 


— 


60 


30 


— 


30 



132 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

7th Gracte 8tli Grade 

Alpha Beta Alpha Beta 

700 Natural science — 

701 Experimental and observational 

general science - — 60 — 60 

702 General science readings - — 60 — 60 

800 Mental science 

801 Mental science readings - — 60 — 60 

802 "How to study" specific subjects 30 — 30 — 

900 Art, plastic and graphic 

901 Applied art appreciation _ ~. 

902 Elements o£ drawing and painting... 

903 Moving pictures, appreciation 

904 Applied drawing . 120 — 120 — 

1000 Music „ 

1001 Musical appreciation — — 60 — 60 

1002 Vocal training 90 

1003 Instrumental training 90 

1004 Chorus - - — 

1005 Band ..„ „„ — 

1100 Practical arts _ 

1101 Industrial arts, miscellaneous „ — 

1102 Housdiold arts, miscellaneous — 

1103 Commercial arts, miscellaneous — 

1104 Agricultural arts, miscellaneous — — 

1200 Vocational guidance — ~ — 

1201 Vocational guidance, readings and 

lectures ~ — 30 — 60 

1202 Individual diagnosis - — 10 — 10 — 

1300 Physical development and education 

1301 Physical play . — 

1302 Hygiene reading and lectures 

1303 Hygiene, training ~ 

1304 Corrective physical training .._ „.... 

C. Junior School Cases 

Case A. Thirty 7th grade boys, average intellectual abilities and In- 
terests, strong physical play and social interest, and good industrial arts 
interests. Are ready for scouting, band, current reading, etc Fathers 
wage earners, economic burdens heavy. Have no foreign affiliations. 
Prognosis : Boys will not remain in school beyond fifteen, but could then 
be induced by prospects of position to go to short course, all-day voca- 
tional specialty school (for juvenile workers) for 30-90 days. Will be 
wage workers in miscellaneous factories until 25, when a few will become 
foremen or high grade specialists. 



— 


90 


— 


— 


90 


— 


60 


— 


30 


30 


— 


60 


180 


, „ , , 


180 


180 


— 


180 


180 


— 


180 


180 


— 


180 



— 


480 


■ — 


480 


— 


60 


— 


60 


60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 


60 


— 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, TWELVE TO FOURTEEN 1 33 

Class B. Thirty 7th grade girls, keen minds, prosperous families, little 
interest in physical play, intellectually and socially amttitious. Will 
probably go through high school and college, then miscellaneous social qr 
teaching work until marriage at 26. May be expected to be prominent in 
social and political life. Will find difficulty in keeping up physical 
strength in mature years. 

Case C. Thirty 7th grade boys from prosperous, cultured homes, 
fairly good in studies, keen for sports, scouting, etc; are naturally good 
speakers and writers. Easily interested in readings, civics, natural 
sciences, industrial arts. Will probably go through college and into pro- 
fession or high stage business. Will be influential in politics. 

Case D. Thirty girls of poor homes and moderate personal cultivation. 
Intellectually keen and very ambitious. Families can keep them in school 
to 18 or even 20, but at much sacrifice. Not well equipped with health 
and physical strength. Can probably not expect to teach because of alien 
ancestry. Will prc^bably marry at 26. No household arts interest now. 

Cases E to M. (To be supplied by students out of personal experience.) 

D. Problems of Pupils 

1. Of the above program of school offerings, is it probable that some 
would be in no demand? Which? Why? 

2. Which of these are valueless or for other reasons ought not to be 
offered at public expense? Why? 

3. Which of these offerings ought to be specifically prescribed for all 
Case A to D pupils alike, irrespective of previous attainments from home 
surroundings, etc.? Why? 

4. Which of these offerings ought to be specifically prescribed for 
pupils deficient in the attainments usually found at the end of the 6th 
grade? Why? 

5. Which of these offerings would you most strongly advise Case A 
pupils to elect? Why? 

6. Same for Case B pupils. 

7. Same for Case C pupils. 

8. Same for Case D pupils. 

9. Same for other hypothetical cases. 

10. Which of these would you most strongly advise Case A pupils not 
to take? Why? 

11. Same for other selected cases. 

12. What special offerings supplemental to the above should be offered 
pupils of 12-14 from two to five grades retarded? 

13. In a junior school (manufacturing village) of only 200 pupils, only 
one-fourth of the above program of studies can be offered, (a) Which 
units would you retain intact? (6) Which eliminate? (c) Which con- 
solidate? 



134 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

E. Problems of Courses 

1. Having assumed and described a probable group of learneps, specify 
in detail controlling aims, organization and methods for courses: 102; 
K)3; 109; 112; 205; 301; 404; 406; 501; 502; 601; 606; 608; 7.01; 702; 802; 
1001; 1102; 2102; 1301. 

2. To what extent is it desirable for the sake of the individual or 
necessary as a means of class administration that all pupils should do 
the same work in : 104 ; 302 ; 403 ; 503 ; 701 ; 1101; 1301? 

3. For what classes, under what conditions, to what extent and hf 
what standards of social worth are the following expected to have value to 
adults: 101; 102; 107; 201; 405; 501; 602; 1002; 1303? 

4. What character of offering would you expect under 103; 204; 608; 
802; 1003; 1103; 1202? 

5. What specific methods would you propose for: 102; 301; 504; 607; 
1004; 1301? 



CHAPTER XX 

OBJECTIVES OF GENERAL SCHOOL EDUCATION, NORMAL 

YOUTHS, AGES TWELVE TO EIGHTEEN 

1. For this period we assume: compulsory full-time school attendance 
12 to 14; optional full-, part-, or no-time attendance 14-18 (with probable 
right to enforce part-time or continuation sckool attendance) ; provision, 
where practicable, of central schools (maximum walking distance two 
miles, riding, one hour each way) ; departmental teaching, flexible curri- 
cula, permitting considerable freedom in formation of student programs; 
and long school day permits reasonable inclusion of "heta" activities. 

a. "Normal" means here inclusion in large modal group — at least 
40% on each side of median — of those graded as to mental 
ability, home influences, fundamental interests, future prospects, 
etc. Note that "exceptionals" are found "above" as well a? 
"below" normals. 

b. But as regards particular qualities, powers, interests, and pros- 
pects, variabilities, always existent, here probably become acute 
and of real significance in making curricula for schools and, 
from these, programs for individuals. (Illustrate variations, 
individual and groupal, as to powers — mathematical, musical, 
manual dexterities ; interests — in abstract studies, in constructive 
work; prospects — for prolonged schooling, for civic leadership, 
for entry on professional calling, for advancing cultural appre- 
ciations.) 

2. Chief contemporary problem of high school curricula is to distinguish 
between required and elective elements in programs of learners. Range 
and variety of offerings possible to large, rich schools very great. Fol- 
lowing suggested principles applicable to school with ideal equipment 
(size, facilities, teaching force) : 

a. Every pupil shall occupy his entire school time profitably, 

b. Each normal pupil shall give at least 800 hours in 13th year 
and 900 hours in 14th year to "alpha" studies and activities ; 
and 1,000 hours thereafter for full-time students- 

c. Every pupil electing an alpha study in which failure to complete 

advanced stages (after suitable "trial" period) invalidates whole 
(e.g., foreign language, music, English language, special mathe- 
matics, plastic art, rifle shooting, a vocation) shall be penalized 
therefor. 

135 



136 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

d. Certain standards of common (universal) competency (powers) 
having been defined as desirable and feasible for normal 12- 
year-olds, pupils therein deficient shall be required to make up 
deficiencies (e.g., spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, silent read- 
ing, geography power, correct speech, right use of voice). Note 
that scientific (i.e., objectively measurable, tangibly evaluated) 
standards here are not yet available, but can be produced with 
due eflfort. 

e. Similarly, if it can be shown that specified forms of power 
suitable for attainment at ages 12-14 (normal subjects) through 
school education should be expected of all (common stand- 
ards), then studies to this end should be prescribed. Note 
that it is doubtful if one can define these now; our preconcep- 
tions (faiths, beliefs) too vague, our evaluation of results of 
extra-school education and development too incomplete. Even in 
such fields as English speech, writing, hygiene, arithmetic, 
drawing, music, geography, history, government, science, our 
standards now factitious, pedantic, unrelated to life. (In any 
one of these fields, ascertain: what all-round B class citizen 
to-day shows ; what are his obvious deficiencies — in functioning 
powers, that is ; and what universal prescription can do to 
help next generation.) 

/. Guidance (for school education, by-education, and towards voca- 
tion) should be fully developed and perhaps some participation 
therein made obligatory. But criteria for guidance now lack- 
ing. E.g., we do not know when pupils should be advised to 
take studies to compensate for inherited deficiencies of power 
or capacity — music, plastic art, mathematics, practical arts, 
poetry — and how far culture should be realized along lines 
of least resistance — i.e., greatest native capacity. 

g. For purposes of effective teaching and administration, it is de- 
sirable that courses in alpha fields or subjects be broken pro- 
gressively into short and concrete units, each with a clearly 
indicated objective, expressed in terms of skill, appreciation, 
knowledge, ideal, etc. 

3. Curricula for any given class should rank offerings on basis of 
probable educational values, placing first those studies that are prescriptive 
under stated conditions. But note: 

a. There may be specific prescription in general (as spelling, pen- 
manship, in lower grades). 

b. There may be specific prescription, for those electing particular 
goal — algebra for engineers, advanced spelling for stenogra- 
phers, Latin for A.B. degree. 

' c. There may be prescription of attendance but not of mastery, 

e.g., compelling presence at prayers, lectures, concerts, etc., but 
no testing of attainment. 



SCHOOL EDUCATION, TWELVE TO EIGHTEEN 137 

d. Quantitative prescription (time, quantity of matter) need not 
involve specific prescription of matter (literature, songs, field 
games, science projects — social, natural, mental). 

e. Minimum standards should be defined for alpha subjects of 
universal import — then pupils deficient should be required to 
make up deficiencies. 

/. Many offerings will be purely elective. 

g. School and society have right and obligation to require profitable 
emplo3Tnent of available time. 

4. Curricula should make formal recognition of ends or objectives and 
indicate or refer to means and methods. Note: 

a. Texts, manuals, guides, syllabi are all detailed instruments 
(plans and specifications) of curricula. 

b. Large number and variety of specifications and suggestions can 
be made without prescription — the implication being that the 
teacher will follow these unless he has equally well defined 
and evaluated substitutes. 

(o) Discuss: Curriculum specifications as a means of super- 
vision; text as teacher's guide; text as pupil's tool; de- 
sirability of writing all texts exclusively for learners and 
supplementing with teacher's guide (manual). 

5. Problem of standards of purpose in alpha subjects and application 
of tests of proficiency. (Illustration: spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, 
drawing, modern language, vocation.) 



CHAPTER XXI 

OBJECTIVES OF LIBERAL SCHOOLS FOR PERSONS, 

AGES EIGHTEEN TO TWENTY-TWO 

1. For this period we assume (a) full-time general or liberal education 
for limited groups; (b) two years to general education followed by begin- 
nings of professional education for limited groups; (c) need of oppor- 
tunities for extension work for persons employed; (d) possible require- 
ments of education for military service; (e) special training toward 
leadership. 

2. Note also idealistic proposals that within these years a period should 
be devoted to state service in lieu of compulsory military service as found 
in other countries. 

3. During these years, for a substantial minority, beginnings should be 
provided in training for leadership. Note confusion in ordinary use of 
term, "leader," (a) sometimes used to denote a person holding a well-paid 
vocation or one that requires much training, — for example, theology, law, 
medicine, engineering; (b) also used to denote man occupying position 
in which he has large and obvious following, for example, official in 
army, captain of vessel, leader of labor union, business manager, superin- 
tendent of schools, etc. 

a. Note historical fact that professional men have also naturally 
been looked upon as leaders, a fact less true than formerly 
for many professions. 

4. Problems of training for leadership of second class, those largely of 
finding persons of superior ability already grounded in lower fields of 
work or contact and giving the supplemental training. Examples : fore- 
man, overseer, political group leader, social leader, etc. 

5. Problems of professional training to-day found more in field of 
method and aim. Note contemporary movements to make professional 
training more practical, to measure power of practical achievement as 
element in granting diplomas. 

6. Problems of new professions. 



138 



CHAPTER XXII 

ADAPTATIONS OF EDUCATION TO SPECIAL SOCIAL CLASSES 

Societies, general or special, utilize education as a means of producing 
desired results of conformity, initiations, etc., in individuals or social 
groups. Note historical examples. 

1. The state, (or philanthropy anticipating), uses school education for 
a vride range of classes: (a) cultural (bright, average, retarded, illiterate 
youths, illiterate adults) ; {b) vocational (leaders, public servants, talented, 
orphaned, socially needy, crippled, speech defective) ; (c) anti-social 

(recidivists, young felons, misdemeanants, youthful delinquents, incorri- 
gible from standpoint of home and school, disciplinary cases, female 
offenders) ; racial (colored, conquered territories, immigrants) ; standard 
of living (homes, utilization, art), health; thrift; temperance; defend- 
ers ; immigrant citizens ; religious devotees, etc 

a. The fundamental problem here concerns desirable and feasible 
limits of social custody — direct control under direction of gov- 
ernment. How far expedient for state permanently to enter on 
productive work with 'blind, recidivists, subnormals, etc. Diffi- 
culties involved as regards: economic competition with private 
enterprise; state as "business man"; restraints on the freedom 
of individual, etc. 

b. Note that custodial care and education have been provided his- 
torically for poorer or neglected groups before provision for 
normal — on assumption of competency of agencies of by-educa- 
tion. 

2. Problems of objectives in education of defectives at present grow 
out of failure to consider that education in terms of its ultimate outcomes 
For example. 

a. Schools for blind and deaf endeavor to give kinds and s^cope 

of education similar to that for normal children. 

b. They neglect supremely important ends of genuine (as against 
make-believe or sentiment-colored) vocational education. 

c. Schools for mental subnormals and cripples do not base their 
programs upon clear cut differentiation between cases that must 
remain custodial and those that can be prepared for independ- 
ent existence. 

(o) Investigations : current programs of these schools studied 
to ascertain actual objectives. 



140 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(b) Problems of the social education of defectives, especially 
mingling with normals. 

3. Problems of education of delinquents, especially acute on side of 
socialization. Uncertainties as to how far anti-social manifestations are 
the result of heredity, or of bad by-education. Schools now weak in 
follow-up oversight. 

a. Segregation for education — a desirable means — how far opposed 
to final socialization? 

b. Difficulty of preventing institutionalizing, of promoting capacity 
for self -direction, saving, resisting powers, industry. 

c. Partial vs. entire custodial oversight — a problem at all stages. 

(a) Examine institutional reports to determine actual ob- 
jectives. 

4. Problems of providing nurturing environment and by-education for 
parentless children. 

o. Adoption, "hired homes," institutional custody required, ac- 
cording to circumstances. 
b. Problem of transition to independence. 

(o) Review history of education of orphans. What has 
been the special contribution of Christianity? 

5. Problems of the social adjustment of immigrants. 

0, Desirability of a national policy. Limitation on private and 
local effort. 

b. Possibilities of ceremonial adoption into citizenship. 

c. Aims of education: individual efficiency; citizenship; standard 

of living; personal culture. 

(o) Formulate detailed problems of education of immigrants 
for New York. 

6. Problems of special education of subject peoples or classes. 

a. Central oversight, and support from local sources. 

b. Special efforts to procure leaders from peoples concerned. 

c. The vocational basis, misunderstood, because of effective by- 
education in controlling peoples. 

d. Conflict of social ideals in education. 

(a) What problems remain as regards education of : Negroes ; 
OFilipinos; Porto Ricans; Indians; East Indians (for Great 
Britain) ? 

7. Extension and differentiation of social needs gives many demands 
for new t3^es of schools. (Efficiency requires that each of these be organ- 
ized on the basis of clearly defined objectives expressed in curricula and 
courses. 

Vocational education must exist in as many varieties as there are at 
any given time differentiated vocations — probably over 2,000 now in the 
United States. Where such education is transferred from "pick «p** and 
apprenticeship methods to schools, these must derive specific objectives 
from systematic needs of the vocation — for numbers, talents, skills, tech- 
nical knowledge, vocational perspective. 



SPECIAL SOCIAL CLASSES I4I 

a. Schools may be designed to oflfer either '^basic" (whole, com- 
plete, integral) or only ''extension" (part, fractional) voca- 
tional education, according as practical participation or appren- 
ticeship can or cannot give part. Curricula for "extension" 
training or instruction can be effective only when formulated 
in clearly understood relationship to the possibilities of contri- 
butions from other sources. 
8. Special education for employed classes may be cultural, physical, 
vocational, or civic. 

a. The "Americanization" of mature immigrants may involve sev- 
eral distinct objectives: (a) training in lEnglisli; (6) instruc- 
tion and perhaps training in citizenship including history; 
(c) instruction and training in American sanitary and sump- 
tuary standards — possibly fundamentals of manners also. 

h. The continuation school with compulsory attendance attempts 
to preserve and increase culture, physical competency, civic qual- 
ities and vocational powers of young persons — under 16 or 18 — 
already vocationally employed. At present curricula for these 
schools are largely experimental. 

c. Many men and women develop special cultural or other interests 
late in life. Philanthropy and volunteer efforts have sporadically 
sought to provide special facilities for these — through extension 
courses, admissiion of workingmen to special college courses. 
etc. Note attempts at Oxford, in New York City, the agri- 
cultural colleges, the American Society for University Exten- 
sion, social settlements, etc 

Military Training 

1. Conditions of competition among nations leading to conflict drastic- 
ally test capacity for coordinated eflForts to special ends of military 
efficiency. 

a. Note historical enlargement of national areas with probability 
of federation such as will lessen war. 

b. Note also steady introduction of science and organization in 
international conflict with resulting draft upon all forces at 
sundry periods in past time. 

c. Analyze significance of James* proposals for moral equivalents 
of war. 

2. Problem of the citizen army vs. specialized soldiery from standpoint 
of international efficiency and from standpoint of prolonged intervals of 
peace between possible conflicts. 

o. Subsidiary problem of a training officer staff with citizen army. 
Contrast examples of Switzerland and America. 

3. Analysis of proposals for universal service in defence, including all 
forms of special service — for example, food production, transportation, 
medical, scientific — as well as actual sharing in immediate conflict. 



142 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

a. The problem of coordinating military training witJi Gaining 
for vocation. 

b. The problem of keeping alive military competency by use of 
vocation or other periods for military training. 

4. The problem of physical training of youths trom 14-18 as founda- 
tions for military training. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

OBJECTIVES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION FOR PHYSICAL 

DEFECTIVES 

1. Physical defectdves here include all variants (by heredity or early 
environment) for whom ordinary educational processes are inadequate — 
deaf, dumb, blind, cripples, mentally subnormal (of all grades), etc. 

a. Note that, at first, classifications here are rough and inclusive 

of only extreme cases. As diagnosis improves, additional 
classes are formed, e.g., completely blind, partly blind; morons, 
imbeciles, etc. (Ex., vocal, aural, skeletal defectives.) 

b. Fundamental classification ultimately required: (a) those 
probably requiring permanent public assistance, release from 
conditions of individual competitive existence; and (b) those 
able, after proper start, to "go alone," without state support. 

2. Philanthropic effort has pioneered education of defectives. Probable 
over-development of attempts to make defectives like normals. Under- 
valuation of vocational education. Absence of evaluation of results in 
terms of adult life — ^20-60 years. 

a. Philanthropic effort often reflects fbest spirit of Christian indi- 

vidualism — the valuation of worth of human soul. But like 
elemental Christian charity, it is often emotional, temporary, 
unscientific — hence in long run, sometimes even unsocial. 

b. Rare cases where physical defectives — more commonly tblind, 
occasionlly crippled — ^have become marked social assets. One 
Helen Keller leads to extended efforts to give fullest possible 
development to culture capacities of blind. 

3. Complications involved in providing normal family life for defec- 
tives probably incapable of meeting conditions of competitive self-support. 
Public assistance agencies, designed to make them at least self-supporting, 
needed. 

a. For these classes is extended cultural education required — e.g., 
general reading, art appreciation, etc.? 

b. Add specialized vocational education at successive stages — 14, 
18, 22 — designed to make them fully productive in state directed 
service. 

4. For classes for whom independent existence is contemplated, very 
specialized forms of liberal and vocational education required. 

a. Liberal education should consist of (a) special forms of cul- 

143 



144 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

tural interest and capacity so developed as to give them relief 
from loneliness and privations which their condition entails; 
and (b) special forms of social education (including vocational 
guidance) adapting them to particular social conditions which 
they must meet. 
b. Obviously, vocational education of a definitely adjusted and 
specialized character required. Need of survey of possible oc- 
cupations, for blind, deaf, subnormal, crippled. Lessons from 
European countries, as consequence of war, now available. 

5. Special problems of blind. 

a. Blindness impairs mental powers less than deafness. Hence, 
given sources of mental stimulation — music, reading, conver- 
sation — ^blind grow readily in cultural appreciations. 

b. But extreme difficulties in teaching studies like geography, 
science, art, etc. Hence, absurdity of many current attempts at 
general education. 

c. Difficulties of employing deaf in cooperative work. 

d. Probabilities that majortiy of blind can be assisted to higher 
productiveness by state action than otherwise. Analyze possible 
openings, cooperative and other. 

6. Special problems of the deaf. 

a. Serious effects of deafness on development of appreciations, 
especially abstract thinking. 

b. Conflict of methods of communication. 

c. Difficulties of employing deaf in cooperative work. 

d. Vocations for the deaf. 

7. Special problems of the crippled. 

a. Vocations. 

8. Special problems of the mentally subnormal (those not ordinarily 
anti-social). 

a. Classification. 

b. Obstacles to freedom — especially of women under 50 year of 
age. 

c. Vocations. Note frequently excellent working powers of sub- 

normals, and bearing of work on physical and moral whole- 
someness. 

9. Speech defectives. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

OBJECTIVES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION FOR THE BLIND 

A. Fundamental Sociological Facts 

1. Birth and accident give society a substantial (but probably diminish- 
ing) number of blind. Unless distinctly subnormal mentally, these are 
expected to be self-supporting in adult life. 

2. Methods have been devised whereby the blind can learn reading and 
writing through use of touch. 

3. Philanthropy has first developed the special education required by the 
blind ; but public agencies now supercede private effort. 

4. Since special teachers and equipment are required to teach the blind, 
central boarding schools are needed — except in a few large cities where 
day school attendance is practicable; hence detachment from home en- 
vironment is almost necessary durii^g school period. 

5. The blind are at least as culturally sensitive and responsive as the 
seeing; but in most respects they are average people. 

6. The outstanding needs of the blind are: special methods of reading 
and writing; special vocational guidance and preparation (in their cases 
pick up methods are signally fruitless) ; and, probably, special cultural 
equipment as resource in leisure; possibly a fourth need is specially ad- 
justed means of physical recreation, 

7. Some social economists believe that in a well organized society all 
the blind so desiring (and, under compulsion, all blind likely to become 
dependent) should be the "wards of the state," being brought together for 
residence and work, under favorable conditions of productive service. 

B. Working Cases 

Case A. Twenty girls, blind from birth, entered at eight years of age 
in free residence school. Of average mentality, from working class 
families, and for sake of families, should be self-supporting at close of 
school — age 18. States provides home, tuition, etc., and exacts, except 
from poorest parents, fees about equal to support of child at home. 
School in session ten months, and can use full day and full week for 
educative purposes. 

Case B, Ten men, 20 to 35 years of age, blinded by accident. State 
will give two years schooling in residence school. Families poor, small 

145 



146 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

cultural background, equivalent of sixth grade education completed at 
fourteen. All of mechanical bent. 

Cases C to D. Supplied by students. 

C. Problems 

1. In Case A, assuming that reading for simple purpose can be taught 
during first three years, and that then history, language, mathematics and 
other academic subjects, except geography, sight music, drawing, and 
practical arts, can be taught as well as to seeing children, what should be 
objectives from eight to eighteen in these subjects? Assuming that geog- 
raphy, drawing, practical arts, and sight music present extraordinary 
difficulties, what would be proposed objectives in these? 

2. In view of opportunities given by residence school, propose novel or 
living under ordinary conditions? 

7. Assume state ready to give life custody and work to Case A mem- 
bers, with partial self-support starting at 16 but some extension education 
continuing to 25; what would be educational program proposed; 8 to 16; 

16 to 25? 

8. What vocations would be proposed for Case B group? How could 
training be provided? What special forms of cultural and physical edu- 
cation would be suggested? 

Summarize experience with blinded soldiers? 

9. What generally valid conclusions can probably be inferred from 
exceptional cases where blind have become successful teachers, farmers, 
secretaries, etc. 

specially adapted set of objectives in respectively: physical development; 
and education towards (a) corrective training, (b) adult recreation; 
cultural education for leisure, civic education. 

3. What will be vocations open to these girls? What vocations are 
probably most desirable for them? Should we assume that in these 
vocations they can compete on equal terms with the seeing, or that they 
should expect to work for less wages, or that they should bring superior 
training? What seem to you the respective possibilities of: teaching; 
typing from dictaphone; needle trades; machine assembly; homemaking 
(employed) ; homemaking (married) ; gardening. 

For one of these vocations indicate programs of training (in residence 
school) with possibilities for part-time work. 

4. Under what circumstances should marriage of blind woman and see- 
ing man be encouraged? Of blind man and woman? 

5. It is said to be very difficult to teach geography to the blind; what 
do you conceive to be necessary objectives in that subject? 

6. What are forms of physical recreation most suited to blind adults 



CHAPTER XXV 

OBJECTIVES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL 

OFFENDERS 

1. For present purposes, the category "anti-social" will be used to cover 
not only persons convicted of felonies and misdemeanors, but also poten- 
tial delinquents, habitual truants and vagrants and part or wholly con- 
firmed victims of various vices. 

2. Social control in large group forms at all stages of social evolution 
has aimed very consciously at the extirpation, repression, correction and 
prevention of anti-social individuals and of "small group" organizations 
of them. Death, expulsion, and drastic punishments have been immemori- 
ally employed. Few religions but have ingeniously used spiritual terrors 
to curb or prevent anti-social manifestations. Systems of law with com- 
plicated machinery of police, courts, prisons and other corrective agencies 
have been evolved. Criminology and relief have an extensive literature 
showing many extensive applications of sociological knowledge. The 
increasing complexity of society creates endless new opportunities for 
development of parasitic, predatory and generally vicious types, necessi- 
tates corresponding provision of means of combatting them. 

3. Social economists have perennial interest in sources of anti-social 
dispositions, as have physicians in sources of many kinds of disease, 
because if these are essentially effects of environment rather than he- 
redity, then prevention seems much more feasible and even correction al- 
ways hopeful. Evidence here is still very obscure and not yet safe guide 
for individual prognosis, but the following conclusions seem now justifi- 
able. 

a. Great variability exists among individuals as regards the in- 
stincts that affect social action. In some, individualistic ten- 
dencies towards angry combat, sex lust, property acquisitiveness, 
vagrancy, idleness, destructiveness and the like are relatively 
strong as against the instincts that make for restraint and 
group conformity, such as fears (of future pain, social dis- 
approval, etc.), submissiveness, domesticity, love, as well as 
their more complex resultants in forms of conscience, loyalty, 
religiousness, industriousness, etc. 

h. A sufficiently adverse social environment (neglect, absence of 
good example and control, ignorance, small group contagion, 

147 



148 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

etc.), given sufficient time in youthful plasticity can probably 
corrupt even the inherently best, and can certainly spoil persons 
of only average or inferior right social equipment. 

c. But, no less certainly, a sufficiently propitious social environ- 
ment, operative over years of plasticity, can at least insure good 
present virtues of conformity, and often of adult conformity 
even in the case of those inherently predisposed to anti-social 
courses. (It should be recognized, however, that the provision 
of such environment may easily be too costly for a given social 
group to provide — hence reluctance of couples to adopt infants 
of doubtful origin, tendencies of primitive peoples and of 
advanced societies summarily to execute or exile unpromising in- 
dividuals, etc.) 

d. The primary socializing agency is parental control and it is 
socially expedient at all times to conserve and even enhance 
the responsibility of the family, but as a consequence, inferior 
families are thus permitted to expose children of average or 
inferior dispositions to prolonged anti-social habituation, before 
other agencies can act loco parentis. Similarly, for the sake 
of conserving liberty and growth opportunities for the majority, 
extensive freedom and scope is given, especially under demo- 
cratic conditions, to play of such agencies as street association, 
press, stage, photodrama, school discipline, which thus give 
endless opportunities for the anti-socially inclined to become 
deeply habituated before influences of special controlling 
agencies (police power, public opinion, etc.) can become oper- 
ative. Hence extreme difficulties, both of early diagnosis of 
potential offenders, and of segregation for special treatment of 
incipient offenders. 

e. The "reformability," that is for restoration to a responsible 
place in free society, of social offenders diminishes rapidly with 
age, with extent of anti-social habituation, and with lowness of 

' general intelligence. A thief, vagrant, prostitute, bully, drunk- 

ard, or slacker of more than twenty-five seems usually ir- 
redeemable except by extraordinary means. Even a youthful 
offender at seventeen to twenty may be hopeless if adverse 
social environment has long been influential. Where "freedom" 
offers many temptations to the person of low intelligence and 
normal or strong appetites (easy living conditions for vagrants, 
laxity towards prostitution and drunkenness, tolerance of 
physical brutality, absence of compulsory school attendance, 
slight disapproval of petty thievery and begging, etc.) a large 
proportiotn of mental subnormals, especially from families 



EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL OFFENDERS 1 49 

where parental control stops early, may be expected to embrace 
paritism and other anti-social practices. 

4. Social economy has made great strides in recent years in directing 
public and official opinion towards prevention and early correction as 
means of lessening number of offenders. 

5. Fundamental classification in all early education based upon char- 
acter of environment and available by-education, (o) Is the home ade- 
quate or capable of being made adequate? or (6) must public (or philan- 
thropic) agencies supply substitutes? 

a. Early diagnosis on this basis necessary to determine functions 
of school education — which is supplemental, if home environ- 
ment is right, and which must develop new means if it is not. 

6. Provisions of substitutes for home influence — in case of broken 
homes or homes unequal to task — always most difficult problem. Note 
classification cottages, probation, out-placing, rewards, self-support. Im- 
portance of special kinds of personality, and means of making it effective 
in public provision of means for by-education. 

a. Devices used in American school for delinquents; so-called 
Parental school; English "day^" truant school; George Jr. 
Republic; etc. 

b. Problems of avoiding : contamination ; mechanization of rou- 
tine; "institutional dependence"; gang labor; uncompensated 
labor. 

c. Problem of "harbor" for youths placed out. 

7. Constructive proposals for: 

a. Disciplinary classes in cooperation with normal home. 

b. Truant classes in connection with: (a) normal home; and 

(b) defective, but still useful home. 

c. Residence schools for neglected and anti-social children, 10-14. 

d. Residence schools for hardened cases, 14 upward, boys. 

e. Same, girls. 

8. Problems of prison education for adults, (o) reformable and (b) 
irreclaimable recidivists. 

9. Problems of vocational education of delinquents. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

1. Three (possibly four) types of objectives in English language 
studies: (a) speaking; (b) reading; (c) writing; and, possibly (d) 
hearing. Each has its peculiar techniques. Common elements in speaking 
and writing, oral reading, etc. 

a. Clear-cut <iifferentiation of objectives (now wanting in English 
language teaching in all but lowest grades) will always : (o) take 
account of learner's previous attainments; (b) give place to 
concomitant factors of thought or idea power as related to 
language appreciation and expression; and (c) then develop 
special and often highly specialized techniques adding new 
powers or improving existing powers. 

b. In certain language phases, functions of school peculiarly re- 
sidual, e.g., speech (including pronunciation, structure usage, 
vocal powers — all ages; and silent reading — older pupils). 

c. Sharp differentiation here made between teaching of English 

language and teaching of English literature. Fundamental 
objectives surely very wide apart (although actual objectives 
of literature study not yet determined). Language courses 
may employ selections and extracts from literature for ana- 
tomical and other exercise purposes — ^but that is not the study 
of literature. 

d. English language studies largely of alpha character. Outcomes 

are or should be definite and measurable powers to be used 
throughout life in definite and instrumental ways. Some appreci- 
ation (beta) offerings may prove desirable — appreciations of 
good usage in those having extraordinary powers of speaking, 
reading and writing. 

2. Speech or oral expression a division in which by-education is pecul- 
iarily potent, leaving school residual functions of, as yet, very imperfectly 
defined character. 

a. What are desirable social objectives? Doubtless: (a) for the 
individual — ease, economy and effectiveness of complete ex- 
pression of ideas in varying situations (with equals, inferiors, 
superiors) ; (b\ for the community — fullness of mutual under- 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1 51 

Standing, disappearance of caste or class distinctions; and (c) 
for the nation — homogeneity of forms (pronunciations, dialects, 
"accents") and maximum of expressiveness. Probably also 
interaction of language and thought as objectives, but psychol- 
ogy in this very obscure. 

b. Oral intercourse is of two fundamentally unlike kinds: (a) 
conversation, chat, "give and take"; and (b) sustained presen- 
tation — reading or speaking to audience. Note that for all 
ordinary "conversation" between "peers" (equals in intellectual 
and social ways) results of by-education seem ample, "Edu- 
cation" in speech is chiefly to prepare for communication 
between those not peers, and for sustained presentation — the 
last being a difficult goal. 

c. Language structure — "speaking grammatically" — a specific goal 

at all stages. Probable uselessness of "grammer" study as a 
basis, at least until age 15. Surveys are needed in each individ- 
ual case and something like a language "map" prepared for 
(and perhaps by) each learner showing strong and weak points. 
Present teaching performances in most schools are frightfully 
clumsy and ineffective. 

d. Voice training — including pronunciation, enunciation, etc. — also a 
possible objective at all stages. Poverty of present "alpha" mech- 
anisms. Need of series of specific dbjectives. Probably 
harmful effects of present methods of school reading and 
recitation. State problems as to whether singing provides val- 
uable exercises towards voice training. Do children of non- 
English speaking parents present special needs? How definable? 

e. Oral reading — ^in true sense of communication of new matter 
to listening audience — probably important objective at stages 
from age ten to twenty as elective for advanced or special 
cultured purposes. But note that but few vocations impose 
special demands for oral reading. Probably archaic character 
of present "oral reading." Note that "reciting," "elocution," 
"speaking," "oratory" and drama — all involving oral delivery 
of memorized text — may be regarded as pedagogical sub- 
species or variants of oral reading. Should "class" oral read- 
ing be discontinued as general requirement after third grade? 

/. Oral composition — sustained oral delivery of ideas for which 
language structure is improvised as delivery proceeds — a ral- 
uable objective for all or at least many of the talented in 
modern life. Class recitations are examples, and in them ap- 
proved standards should be maintained. Debating as a valuable 
means. Need of defining series of specific objectives in teach- 
ing oral composition. 



152 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

g. Vocabulary (building, including readiness of recall, an undefined 
problem as yet in oral expression. 

h. Grammar, rhetoric, "elocution" — all have possible "units" to 
offer in "language study" applied to speech, but these not yet 
well defined. 

f. Discuss special problems of oral language training for: (a) 
teachers; (6) publicists; (c) preachers; {d) telephone opera- 
tors, etc 

3. Reading, as used here, means only "silent" reading. Conditions of 
civilized society make this an objective of education second in importance 
only to speech; and because of ineffectiveness of by-education in early 
years, the first objective of all lower schools. 

o. Note desirability of devising means of teaching silent reading 
without the boring and probably harmful means of "oral read- 
ing" as now found in grades one to seven. 

b. Note probably harmful effects of trying to "correlate" study of 

"silent reading" with other studies, including literature; but 
also desirability of special drills on each new field of printed 
subject matter — e.g., algebra. 

c. But note potency of by-education as result of newspaper and 
general reading (including "movie" legends) from 10th year on. 

d. State current problems of teaching (printed) word recognition; 
phrase recognition ; and expression. What is "eye span." 

e. Probability that reading of script should not be taught for at 
least one year after reading of "print" has been begun. 

/. Define problems of teaching silent reading as approach to each 
new stage or type of subject matter — geography, arithmetic, 
history, chemistry, "heavy" magazine," etc. 

g. Define problems of interaction of silent reading (as text re- 
cognition) and assimilation or apperception of thought conveyed. 

4. English writing (including penmanship, spelling, composition, gram- 
matical structure, rhetoric, etc.) one of first objectives, historically, of 
school education. Note inadequacy of by-education at all stages. 

a. Penmanship to be regarded as a difficult manual art. Proba- 
bility that it should not be commenced until second or third 
year in school life, on pedagogical as well as physiological 
grounds. Possibilities of substituting "printing" machines 
(t3T>ewriters) at early stages. Physiological and psychological 
problems of "methods" of teaching penmanship. Qualitative 
standards and possibilities of defining optimum standards of 
rate (quantitative standards). Possibilities of successive learn- 
ing stages, e.g., ages 7, 12, 16. State problems of "special" 
penmanship for vocations. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 153 

b. Spelling as a specific objective. Discuss problems of scope for 
successive stages of general education; special spelling, for 
vocations ; and possible effects of by-education through reading. 

c. Composition — need of further specific objectives. Only a few 
— capitalization, special forms for letters, punctuation, etc. — 
now clearly defined. Need of definition of problems of structure 
beyond those found in oral composition. State problems : of 
source material; interaction of thought and expression in com- 
position; of applying results of studies of grammar, word 
analysis, "vocabularies," etc., grammar, rhetoric, etc 

Problems 

1. What kinds of English language — cultural, civic, vocation — should 
be taught in vocational schools? Distinguish sharply elective from pre- 
scribed offerings. Assume as cases: 

a. A medical college admitting only approved candidates with at 
least two years of general college educatiort 

b. A "six months intensive" school for barbers, admitting none 
younger than sixteen, and without reference to grades passed. 
(Students chiefly children of non-English speaking parents.) 

c. A two years course school for stenographers, open only to per- 
sons finishing two years general high school course, and having 
"good" records in spelling, composition and grammar. 

d. A normal school preparing teachers of first six grades, open 
only to approved high school graduates. 

e. A two year part-time school of carpentry, requiring completion 

of fifth grade, age of fifteen, and exceptional bodily develop- 
ment for admission. (Applicants usually crude in oral, and 
deficient in written, English, and without interest or conscious- 
ness of need of further studies.) 
/. A "six months" intensive school of homemaking designed for 
•women, heretofore wage-earners, on eve of marriage, ages 20-25^ 
from varied wage-earning vocations — factory, clerical, selling — 
and of variable schooling — fifth grade to high school graduation. 

2. The belief prevails widely that a "second language" contributes sub- 
stantially to mastery of English. Analyze probabilities, and also indicate 
specific problems for experimental investigation, in following cases: 

a. Journalists, statesmen, preachers have vocational needs of wide 
range of vocabulary, keen discriminations of verbal meanings, 
correctness of language structure, and "fine expressiveness 
(rhetoric) in writing." What would study of education of the 
following persons suggest as to respective contributions of: 
native talent, second childhood vernacular, classic language 
study, systematic study of vernacular and systematic study in 



154 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

youth of second modern language; Demosthenes, Euripides, 
Cicero, Francis Bacon, Burke, Alexander Hamilton, Browning, 
Whitman, Poe, Hawthorne, Webster, Lincoln, Tolstoi, Kipling, 
Shaw, Roosevelt? What could be shown by study of less 
gifted, "B grade" persons known to you? In comparative 
studies of, e.g., successful Americans or Englishmen, hovv^ can 
we evaluate "socially selective" effects of traditional schools for 
"cultured" classes? Even if "classical learning contributed noth- 
ing to proficiency in English, should we not expect to find that 
nearly all leading English writers and speakers since 1650 had 
studied the classics? 

b. Large numbers of French-Canadians are "bi-lingual" Can evi- 

dence be found as to whether such conditions improve or handi- 
cap the most needed tongue? 

c. What specific powers of correct usage (grammatical) in Eng- 
lish can be traced to the enlightenment or training obtainable 
from grammar and composition study of : Greek, Latin, Span- 
ish, French, Japanese? 

d. What specific rhetorical powers can similarly be traced? 

e. What specific powers over rich and sensitive vocabularies? 
/. What specific vocal powers? 

3. Back of good English expression are two general factors: (a) con- 
tent (ideas, feelings, concrete experiences, etc.) ; and (b) motives for 
communication that shall produce desired results for auditors or readers. 
Analyze some possibilities of establishing specific school objectives in 
these fields precedent to conscious work on language objectives. Sug- 
gestive examples among others are : 

a. The "experience producing" effects of travel, new companions, 

wage-earning work, scouting, self-initiated reading, practical 
arts projects, etc 

b. Motivation resulting from requirements of vocation newly en- 
tered, defeating, new associates, changed social station, etc. 

Is it likely that school studies of the prescribed order, taken in per- 
functory spirit, contribute to these general means? Observe such factors as: 

c. Intensities of desires for communications to teachers, com- 

panions, parents, other superiors, accounts of experiences or 
ready made ideas from school studies of history, literature, 
science, geography, vocational learners; all, ages 4-6; the "gang 
followers," ages 10-14; intellectually elite girls, ages 14-18; 
students in vocational school of law, elementary teaching, in- 
door salesmanship (girls). 

d. Discrepancies between "classroom" and playground English as 
regards precision, forcefulness, correctness. 

4. The chief sources of "by-education" English are, for ages 1-5, 
parents ; and thereafter, associates of equal or slightly superior age. Latter 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1 55 

source tends towards narrowness of range and speed and precision of 
actions. Is it not true that, for the purposes needed, such language 
— especially in oral phases where intensity of habituation is assured — 'is 
adequate and fully satisfying? From sociological viewpoint it represents 
only "small group" needs and powers. The school's function, then, is to 
correct and extend so far as known "large group" needs require. Can- 
not this approach be better employed than at present as source of motives? 
Under this head consider slang, localisms, approved clique, gang, set, and 
shop standards. Give instances where shame of individual deficiencies 
and at "small group" standards has been established ; and of ambitions 
for "better" things. 

5. Criticism of lower by higher schools often takes form "this learner 
cannot read the printed page." How far is ability "to read the printed 
page" dependent upon acquaintance with ideas being conveyed? How- 
many elementary school graduates can read a page of : Browning, Burke, 
Gibbon? How many college graduates can read a printed page of Kant, 
Amy Lowell, Newton, Loeb? 

6. In schools with departmental teaching, "who shall teach English" ? 
This is obviously an unsettled problem and a source of acrimonious dis- 
cussion. The following theses are suggested for study. 

a. One set of school objectives — often of written, and sometimes 
of read and spoken English — is peculiar to certain studies — 
pronunciation of names in ancient history, punctuation in mathe- 
matical tabulations, spelling in medicine, English structure 
in Latin translation, spelling in geography, pronunciation in 
singing, handwriting in bookkeeping. Responsibilities for train- 
ing in these techniques belong to the department concerned, 
not to the English language department. 

b. Another set of objectives involves instruction and preliminary 
training in new principles and practices of more or less general 
application. Responsibility here belongs to the English lan- 
guage department. 

c. But a third group of objectives involves holding learners up to 

standards already understood, but only partially established as 
habits. Here all teachers — and outsiders, too, if that is practi- 
cable — should cooperate to prevent deterioration of pronun- 
ciation, handwriting, spelling, structural usage, vocabularies, 
etc. But such maintenance of incipiently established standards 
must not become "fussy" and "nagging," otherwise, self-con- 
sciousness supervenes, and, in non-English studies, expression 
rather than content becomes the end of effort. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE— ANCIENT 

These here taken to include Latin and Greek, but principles apply equally 
to Hebrew, Old English, Arabic, etc, which, as languages, persist to-day 
only in limited areas and in decidedly modified forms, and the literatures 
of which reflect very alien cultures and inspirational forces. 

1. For Western World studies of ancient languages and literatures of 
much importance in periods of renaissance when they were large and 
vital sources of knowledge, ideals. Note also long period during which 
Latin was only medium of scholarly intercourse. 

a. Traditions of these values persist even after (a) extensire 
literatures have been created in vernaculars, (6) vernaculars be- 
come more available for scholarly intercommunication, and (c) 
vernacular literatures in large measure have assimilated and 
express (except as to niceties of art factors) significant con- 
tent of classical literatures — because: (1) other materials of 
study not well organized; (2) social demand for an "aristo- 
cratic, exclusive and somewhat mystic culture" ; (3) domi- 
nance of public, and even more of endowed education by the 
"successful" products of classical education; (4) sheer tradi- 
tionalism of successful educators and theologians — and, to lesser 
extent, lawyers and magistrates — ^whose influence has been 
strong in determining educational standards; (5) vogue of 
theories of psychological "faculties," leading easily to beliefs in 
virtues of educational "simples" or specifics for general mental 
training; and (6) beliefs that study of classical languages en- 
hances powers to use vernacular or to master modern languages. 

b. Classical languages and literatures once central means in pur- 
suit of "humanities," "appreciations of the higher (or highest, 
some think) of things human," Note vagueness of definition 
of humanities and probability of close connection with studies 
suited to a "leisure" (gentlefolk) class. Per contra, note con- 
nections with Protestant reformers, educators, magistrates and 
theologians in revival of learning which leads down to yester- 
day in modern England, Germany, America. 

c. Note persistence as requirement for admission to college and 

for A.B. degree. 

2. Waning influence of Latin and Greek languages and literatures in 
liberal education conspicuous in recent years. Note decline first in Latin 

156 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE — ANCIENT 1 57 

countries, longest persistence in England, America, Germany. Factors in 
diminishing influence : 

a. Widening range of secondary education, necessitating non- 
classical curricula to meet democratic needs. 

h. Diminishing fruitfulness of classical studies in new ideas and 
ideals, and, on other hand, increasing efficacy of non-classical 
studies for same purposes. 

c. In very recent years, diminishing confidence in these studies 
as of exceptional value for: (a) mental training; (6) basal 
contributions to study of English and modern foreign lan- 
guages; and (c) culture attributable to "humanities." 

3. Contemporary problems: 

a. On part of individual, what degree of mastery of a classic 
language and its best literature is requisite to produce in sig- 
nificant measure: (a) a functioning culture? (&) function- 
ing appreciations that are of "the humanities"? (c) rein- 
forcement of English? 

h. On part of society, what proportion of individuals learned 
in the Latin and Greek classics would suffice in optimum 
measure to keep alive social interest in them and to translate 
anew their values? (cf. Heibrew, Arabic, Irish, Norse, San- 
scrit, Chinese, Inca.) 

c. To what extent for youths of scholarly capacities, can more 

modern sources furnish equivalent values? 

d. To what extent can society derive equivalent values from 
more modern sources? 

e. In what ways and to what extent does study of classics (as, 

e.g., possible in modern secondary school and when taught by 
methods now approved) reinforce powers to use English? 
Capacities to appreciate English products? 
/. What are specific possible contributions from study of Latin 
to study of: Spanish? French? German? Russian? 

g. What are, specifically, alleged possible contributions of study 

of Latin to mental discipline? 
h. What are possible contributions of some knowledge of Latin 

to study of: medicine? law? biological science? music? 

4. Proposals for consideration: 

a. Large, prosperous schools might open classes in Latin and 
Greek for pupils 12 years of age or over who, fully advised, 
give promise of lasting interest, and whose language studies 
thus far give promise of ready mastery. (But secondary 
school pupils should not be permitted to take both Latin and 
Greek; the second might be taken in college.) 



158 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

b. For students already successful in English and a modern lan- 
guage, a short course in Latin open at beginning of Uth 
grade, and designed to reinforce English and the modern 
language. 

c. An elective short course in "Word Analysis," dealing with 

various sources of English vernacular, open in 8th or 9th 
grade. 

d. Cultural short courses on Roman and Greek literature ap- 
proached through translations — 10th to 12th grades. 

e. Final abandonment of prescriptions of Latin — for graduation 

from any school, for admission to any school, or for any 
standard degree. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE— MODERN 

1. Modern Languages here taken to include French, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, German, Russian, Japanese, Chinese (or form thereof) and the 
literatures in these tongues approved by contemporaries. 

a. Note that French or German or both are frequently pre- 
scribed and almost always desired among college entrance 
qualifications ; that gradually one of these has been accepted 
as alternative to Latin ; that probably one-third of all high school 
students give some time to French or German; and that cost 
of these offerings now in American high schools is probably up- 
ward of seven million dollars yearly. 

b. Offerings of Spanish increase very rapidly in high schools, 
especially commercial departments. 

c. German — rarely other languages — tauglht in some school sys- 
tems in grades, usually to children of German-speaking parents. 

2. Objectives of modern language instruction most ill-defined at present 
in secondary schools. 

a. Among possible objectives no clear-cut differentiation is made 

between reading and speaking powers, though the first might, 
within moderate limits, be accomplished in four or six years of 
well directed work. 

b. Written composition is frequently required, but purpose not 
clear. 

c. Surveys are needed to determine: (a) kinds and degrees of 

mastery desired; and (b) proportion of cases in which at- 
tempted goals are realized. Specifications under (a) should 
distinguish: (1) preliminary superficial "bowing acquaintance" 
with language as printed ; (2) partial reading knowledge 
of current prose (as found in newspapers) ; (3) substantial 
reading knowledge of "approved" literature, including poetry; 
(4) comprehensions of colloquial vernacular as spoken; (5) 
ability to speak intelligibly; (6) ability to write (e.g., business 
correspondence) plain prose; (7) (add other standards). 
Specifications under (b) should discriminate and evaluate usual 
results for (1) secondary school pupils terminating study after 
"two-years' course"; (2) secondary students meeting usual 
two- and three-point college entrance standards and no longer 

159 



l60 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

continuing study; (3) probable results of four years in 
secondary school and four years in college given to one lan- 
guage; (4) results of "four years" divided between two 
modern languages; (5) results of intensive short courses for 
scientific reading; (6) other practices. 

3. Survey needed of qualifications now usually possessed by teachers 
of French, German, and Spanish. In most cases, probably meagre. 
Could they sustain easy conversations with natives of foreign country? 
Could they write? Note frequency with which high school teachers 
attempt to teach two modern languages. 

4. Proposals for discussion: 

a. Small high schools (combined with junior high schools) 
should offer only one modern language; this should be de- 
signed primarily to establish reading knowledge, and 
methods should be devised to that end; only pupils above 
average in English, and pro^bably alble to continue study for 
several years, should be admitted ; if possible, study should be 
begun at 12, perhaps using no reading at first; and every 
reasonable effort should be made to have student continue 
language four or preferably six or eight years to point of 
working mastery of prose reading. 

b. Schools with large resources, after making provision of 
reading knowledge on part of promising students, may open 
limited classes designed to impart speaking and writing 
powers. Objectives here to produce interpreters, translators, 
and others capable of use of foreign language, including 
interpretation of culture materials. Japanese, Russian, etc., 
included. Every effort made to retain pupils until effective 
mastery reached. Endowments for foreign travel desirable. 

5. Given large commercial department — 400 girls, 100 boys — in high 
school of prominent Indiana city. School authorities find strong demand 
for Spanish, as much among girls as boys. They desire department to 
be effective since its maintenance costs nearly $50,000 per year. They 
ask (a) your administrative recommendations in light of present knowl- 
edge, and (b) your recommendations as to surveys and other means 
of scientifically determining best course of action, as to: 

a. Whether Spanish should be (1) prescribed or (2) offered elec- 
tively as a vocational subject in their commercial department. 

b. What kinds (including lengths) of courses should be provided. 

c. What should be the vocational objectives and what reasonable 

expectations from these courses? 

d. Should election of these courses be restricted on basis of (1) 
sex, (2) probable commercial vocation, (3) native ability, or 
for other reason? 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE — MODERN l6l 

e. What will probably be a reasonable per capita cost of such 
courses for satisfactory attainment? 

/. It is planned to reorganize courses so that stenographers' 
courses for girls, and all courses for boys (except office service, 
short course) shall presuppose completion of two years gen- 
eral hig'h school work. Girls' salesmanship and "office aid" 
courses may be taken by those of only elementary school edu- 
cation. Should the election of Spanish now be permitted in 
first year of general high school? 

6. Take similar problems for following cities; Baltimore, San Fran- 
cisco, Minneapolis, San Antonio. 

7. A rich Pacific Coast state, recognizing the social need of readers 
and speakers of Japanese in its midst, and being aware of the difficulties 
of providing proper instruction and training therein, provides two 
"encouragement funds," annual appropriations of $100,000 to be used in 
secondary (junior and senior) schools, and $50,000 to be used in state 
university, (a) Devise on basis of present, a plan for the work, in- 
cluding (1) analysis of desirable objectives (and social ends to be 
served), (2) plans for selecting schools, (3) plans for selecting pupils, 
(4) plans for securing teachers, (5) travelling aid, funds, etc. (&) 
Suggest certain investigations that should be made by experts before 
fijial plans are adopted. 

a. Would you recommend action similar to foregoing for New 
York, Missouri, Nevada? 

h. Could you urge pupils to elect work offered on grounds of 
probable personal advantage (1) culturally, or (2) vocation- 
ally. 

8. Formulate similiar case problems with regard to : Chinese ; Russian ; 
Portuguese; Danish. 

9. What are advantages and disadvantages of having one or more 
modern languages taught by specialists (governess, nurse) in homes at 
ages 2-7 (as frequently done in the past in Europe, especially Russia) ? 
Would you advise educational leaders to urge parents who can afford it, 
to have languages so taught? Would you advise the use of public 
funds for this purpose? Would you recommend use of pubHc funds to 
teach a modern language in schools for children ages 6-10? 10-12? 12 
upward ? 

10. If "easy reading of current non-literary" products is the specific 
goal of (a) Spanish, (h) French, (c) German, or {d) Japanese, to what 
extent is "grammatical knowledge" needed, and what phases of gram- 
mar? 

11. On basis of concrete analysis of needs, and having in mind probable 
social conditions of the next ten years, indicate difficulties and advan- 
tages, respectively, of securing results from (a) English vernacular and 



1 62 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(b) foreign vernacular teachers for (1) reading knowledge of French, 
(2) speaking and writing knowledge of French, (3) preparation for Ar- 
gentine business, and (4) speaking knowledge of Japanese. 

12. Outline plan for training teachers of Spanish, including provision 
for one year's residence among Spanish speaking peoples. Estimate 
total probable cost. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
MATHEMATICS 

The term "mathematices" is here used to include arithmetic, as well as 
studies usually found in secondary schools. 

1. A confusion of objectives has long prevailed in all mathematics 
teaching. \^ 

a. Vocational needs (farmers, builders, navigators, lumbermen, 
engineers, small merchants, investors) of special classes of 
workers have been taken up for general application in schools. 
Hence the importance attached to: various forms of denom- 
inate number tables; applied percentage; mensuration; solid 
geometry; trigonometry, etc. 

h. Mathematical exercises readily fitted to illusory schemes of 
"mental discipline" as "panacea," "simples," gymnastics. Note 
ease with which teachers can assign and supervise difficult 
work; also complexity and endless quantity of unapplied (and 
unapplicable) mathematics readily available for school use. 
Note, e.g., persistence of mathematics in women's schools and 
colleges and in other institutions adhering to the traditional. 

c. It is easy to produce plausible defences of "culture" values of 
mathematics — as giving abiding interests, expanded concepts 
for interpretation of environment, valuable logical "forms" of 
thought, appreciations of "control" of nature through mathe- 
matics, etc. Ideally, and for a few special types of minds, 
functioning of this kind feasible; is it so for many? Doubt- 
ful. Would test of "interest" apply? 

d. Educators foster belief that secondary school mathematics is 
required for studies (presumably in science, economics) sub- 
sequently to be pursued. Mythical character of this belief. 

2. Proposals for reconstruction : distinguish sharply general needs (users, 
consumers, or common to many vocations) from specialized vocational 
needs; develop new means of attaining "appreciation" (cultural insight) 
ends in mathematics; and make mental training a necessary accompani- 
ment of all teaching designed for permanent "functioning." 

a. Certain amounts of mathematical knowledge and skill are 
necessary for men and women in their common activities as 
buyers, users, travellers, general readers, citizens. Effective 
mastery of these doubtless requires : definite drill on f unda- 

163 



164 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

mentals; much experience and training in applying to concrete 
usual life situations; and omission of all complexities. 

Beyond that called for here, is any mathematics needed as 
common element in many vocations? Doubtful. 

b. Vocational mathematics should be provided after vocational 
choice has been made (continuation school for young persons 
already employed, evening school for apprentices over 17, 
vocational school, prevocational trigonometry in high school 
for prospective engineering students, short courses for persons 
seeking foremanship or higher stages, etc.) Proibably, best 
results can be secured here (a) by clearly defining ends in 
terms of actual requirements of particular vocation; (fe) by 
teaching in part through definite application, etc.; and (c) by 
using to full economic motives. 

Mathematics required for prosecution of subsequent studies 
(after period of compulsory school attendance has been 
passed) should be offered in same way as vocational mathe- 
matics. 

c. Among beta studies designed at various stages in growth to give 

appreciation of, and insight into, material and social environ- 
ment, should be offered appreciation courses of mathematics, 
of which no present types exist. Such courses no more require 
technical knowledge of mathematics than do appreciation 
courses in music, painting, poetry, science, home decoration or 
travel require technical knowledge and skill in composing, 
painting, verse-making, research, calcimining, or navigation. 
Such courses would include: stocks, exchange, compound 
interest, commission, insurance, solid geometry, much of men- 
suration, triangulation, calculus, statistics, etc., all so presented 
as to produce appreciation, vivid and interpretative, of man's 
use of mathematics as aid to short expression, accurate de- 
scription, instrument of precision, revealer of laws, means of 
control in war, building, mining, harnessing natural forces. 
Effective means (readings, pictures, models, etc.) all yet to 
be devised. 

d. Beliefs in superiorit}^ of mental arithmetic, cube-root, partial 
payments, algebra, geometry, etc., as instruments of mental 
discipline (mental gymnastics) now questioned. (Illusions of 
faulty psychology here persist, as well as Puritan distrust of 
"easy gains.") Functioning of any exacting mental activity 
(geometry, verbal memorization, chess, Scout observation 
of nature, puzzles) doubtless much dependent on interest, 
self -activity. Present tentative solution : do not seek mental 
discipline as a primary and determining end of any extensive 
subject or series of educational activities. Let other and more 
demonstrably realizable ends (cultural, civic, physical growth, 



MATHEMATICS 165 

vocational) determine choice of subject matter, activities; then 
so realize these ends that right and effective mental training 
results as an accompanying process. 

3. Miscellaneous proposals. 

a. Desirable that experiments be made as to desirability of 
abandoning all alpha arithmetic until ninth age year or third 
grade. 

b. In junior high school, differentiation of general or consumers' 
arithmetic along main lines to correlate roughly with prac- 
tical arts or prospective interests, industrial, commercial, 
agricultural, household. Avoid illusion of "prevocational," 

c. No prescription of mathematics for entrance to, or gradu- 
ation from, high schools or colleges of general education. 
Specific and demonstrably needed special prescriptions to apply 
to all vocational schools. 

Problems 

Because of many prevalent faith assumptions and even superstitions 
relative to mathematics, these problems need investigation. In each case 
(a) give your present carefully analyzed opinions and (b) suggest means 
of scientific inquiry. 

4. What are the prevailing needs of (a) higher arithmetic, (b) algebra 
and geometry, and (c) trigonometry in the following vocations: dentistry, 
artillery officer, drygoods salesman, stock farmer, real estate agent, bank 
cashier, architect, expert accountant, homemaker, stenographer (girl) 
teacher of modern language, electrical engineer, oculist, hotel cook, car- 
penter. 

5. What are the prevailing needs of mathematics for the following 
college studies as ordinarily found in "liberal arts" courses : English litera- 
ture, Spanish, chemistry, home economics, economics, ancient history, 
English history, physics. 

6. What are the prevailing "consumer's" needs of each of the following: 
(a) a man of college education, family expenditures, $5,000 per year, 
actively participating as a citizen (not office holder) in politics, reading 
the "best" magazines and newspapers, and participating generously in cur- 
rent culture, (b) A skilled artisan of average interests in politics, (c) 
A woman of thirty, spending for living $1,200 per year, and only slightly 
interested in current politics and culture. 



CHAPTER XXX 
NATURAL SCIENCE 

1. For purposes of this syllabus, all science is treated in three main 
divisions : natural, mental, social. 

a. Fundamentally, all phenomena considered by "science" are 
"natural." But convenient custom makes "natural science" ex- 
clude phenomena of society, and of mental action, although in- 
cluding phenomena of human physiology, hygiene, etc. 

b. "Natural science" as here used includes data and phenomena 
usually embraced under physics (mechanics, hydrostatics and 
hydraulics, electricity, optics, etc.), chemistry, biology (zoology, 
botany, bacteriology, physiology, etc.), astronomy, geology, earth 
geography (human geography is placed with social sciences), 
etc. There are included also "applied" natural science — agricul- 
ture, hygiene, engineering, navigation, etc. Anthropology, 
ethnology, history, economics, etc., are placed with social 
sciences. Mathematics is given a place apart. 

2. What does ©r should "science" mean in education? Interpretations 
must be broad. All the objective facts of nature belong here when viewed 
by the learner as non-mystical, as explainable in terms of "natural" law 
or causation, as capable of organization in sequences and structures. The 
attitude of the viewer is largely determinative — does he see in sensational, 
curious, uninterpreted phenomena ultimate play of "natural causes" (as 
opposed to the animistic causation imputed by primitive minds) ? Has he 
general conviction that, given time and means, rational explanations are ob- 
tainable — of tides, earthquakes, images, magnets, bird migrations, disease, 
souring of milk, vaccination, flowing sap, wireless telegraphy, man's 
skeletal resemblance to chimpanzee, air-borne contagions, nurture of in- 
fant eels, oil in sandstones, vermiform appendix, fear of the dark? If 
so, he has the beginnings of scientific insight and attitude. 

a. For the purposes of the scientist, disposed to disregard infant 
stages, higher standards may be necessary to define the "classi- 
fied and tested" knowledge to be included under any science. But 
standards of adults of specialized capacity are hurtful in educa- 
tion of youth in all fields — art appreciation, practical capacity, 
language power, no less than science. Older sciences, astronomy, 

i66 



NATURAL SCIENCE 167 

mechanics, chemistry — have advanced far interpretation of com- 
prehensive relationships and unvarying sequences — laws, prin- 
ciples, generalizations, explanations. Clear demarcations are 
here established between ascertained specific and general facts 
and hypotheses or theories. But the child must scale these 
heights gradually. Scaling foothills, if peaks are kept in view, 
will constitute sound introductory pedagogy — child-leading. 

b. Hence science study adapted to any stage of mental development 
will not seek to go far beyond limits of accessible (i.e., instinc- 
tive or environment-stimulated) interests, and found capa- 
cities for genuine assimilation. But however far it goes, it 
should observe phenomena as real things, as naturally (including 
humanly) caused, as, in greater or less degree, explainable on 
basis of law, principle, generalization. 

c. Wrong pedagogy of science teaching attaches excessive impor- 
tance to fundamental explanations early reached — forgetting 
that even in oldest science we have yet few final explanations. 
In astronomy, learning that sun does not move about earth was 
a great advance; that earth moves about sun was another; 
that planets and sun constituted a "system" was another; but 
back of these known fields are many yet to be explored. Even 
young child can very readily be led a little way in observation 
and interpretation of scientific phenomena; older ones will go 
some farther ; and the exceptional few very far. 

3. What purposes should control in the use of natural science in edu- 
cation ? 

a. In various fields of vocational education special forms of in- 
struction in science, and training in use of scientific media 
are required, (a) "Some knowledge of chemistry" (as we say, 
vaguely) is required on the part of the youth preparing for 
the callings of assayer, physician, pharmacist, chemical engi- 
neer, metallurgist, etc. (b) Is " some knowledge of chemistry" 
also required of the prospective farmer, cook, plumber, electri- 
cian, chauffeur, dyer, toolmaker, dentist, school nurse, primary 
school teacher? If so, what? Chemistry as a separate study, or 
simply some detached units from chemistry? Distinguish 
among educational knowledges, beliefs and superstitions in this 
matter. 

b. Repeat above analysis for: (a) Relation of physics to mechan- 
ical engineering, medicine, machine shop practice (foreman), 
machine shop practice (machinist), machine shop practice 
(specialty worker), gardening, poultry raising, captaincy (ship- 
board), captaincy (army), dentistry, homemaking, textile fac- 
tory working, plumber, chauffeur, etc. (b) Relation of astron- 
omy to navigation (captain), navigation (third mate), navi- 



l68 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

gation (sailor), farming clairvoyance, aerial navigation, etc. 
(c) Relation of bacteriology to fruit raising, lumbering, war 
leadership, homemaking, dentistry, nursing (child), nursing 
(bedside), etc. 

c. From the standpoint of man as a neffective "user' (consumer, 

utilizer) some kinds of "appreciation" of science seem desir- 
able, (a) What kinds of scientific knowledge will make men 
in certain threatening situations .as regards health consult best 
available "technical" — i.e., scientifically equipped — service in- 
stead of purveyors of advertised drugs, "faith healers," 
"voodoo doctors," unqualified midwives, etc.? (b) What kinds 
and degrees of scientific instruction and training will give us 
individual buyers capable of distinguishing (or of obtaining 
advice) as between the true and false, the genuine and the 
imitation, the pure and the adulterated in foods, clothes, furni- 
ture, fertilizers, decorations, vehicles, medicines, tools, etc.? 
Or collective buyers (voting citizens) of street paving, building 
materials, gas, water supplies, drainage, civic buildings, etc.? 

d. From standpoint of common "likemindedness," "citizenship," 
mutual understanding of each other, vital appreciation of world 
in which we find ourselves, fairly comprehensive (but not deep) 
appreciation of scientific explanations of natural and artificial 
phenomena probably desirable for all. Include appreciative 
understanding (with some idealization when definable) of: 
electric traction, rain, moon's phases, rotting of fruit, photog- 
raphy, volcanoes, deep sea life, interstellar ether, mountain 
sculpture, moving pictures, color printing, soil fertilizing, yel- 
low fever prevention, animal eugenics, earth's age, pottery glaz- 
ing, seed transportation, sun spots, placer gold mining, concrete 
building, balanced rations, detonation, telephony, and thousand 
other phenomena studied under "pure" and "applied" science. 

Problems 

4. The chief problem of natural science teaching at present is determin- 
ation, first of desirable beta objectives, and, second, of finding curriculum 
organization and method for them. 

a. Real "out-of-doors" nature study suggests one type of method; 
"self-teaching" readings another; "home experimental science" 
a third; and the moving pictures a fourth. 

b. Is the single text in "general science" a practicable means for 
pupils? Doubtful. It necessitates too much condensation, sys- 
tematization, formalization for beta objectives. It assumes un- 
obtainable resourcefulness on part of teacher. Good gener- 
al science should be so organized as to become no less "self- 
teaching" than good literature, practical arts, and physical sports. 
Scouting and home gardening also suggest valuable methods. 



NATURAL SCIENCE 169 

c. Each pupil, under advice of teacher, should be expected to fill 
time elected or prescribed profitably, provision being made for 
cooperating groups and conferences for report. Obviously — 
great flexibility is necessary and much reading matter. 

d. For the present, the junior high school is the most feasible 
place for experimentation with beta objectives. Intellectual 
curiosity is strong, and spirit for project work at its best. 

5. Science subjects as "prevocational" or "related technical knowledge" 
in vocational education, belong clearly in the alpha class of objectives. 
The present need is for greater definition of these objectives as related 
to named vocations. Even in professional this area abounds with school- 
men's superstitions. 

a. Two methods are here opposed. Under the first, an entire 
"pure" subject is first taught — as in the case of trigonometry 
for prospective engineers. Then problems involving appli- 
cations are taken up. Under the second, practical projects are 
taught from the outset, as in the case of farming for boys 
of less than high school education ; and as science topics are 
suggested naturally by project — from fields of mathematics, 
chemistry, physics, meteorology, bacteriology, economics — these 
are studied as "related knowledge." The latter method 
is probably the only one practicable for many vocations and 
possibly best for nearly all ; but it lacks pedagogic analysis, 
definition, and documented examples as yet, hence it frightens 
progressive teachers, whilst the unprogressive deny its practi- 
cability at any time. 

6. Where and when shall "science for consumer's needs" be taught? 
This problem may have to wait clearer definition of educational objec- 
tives for utilization ; but following suggest possibilities : 

a. Hygiene, when properly taught as now conceived, involves so 
much of scientific enlightenment as may be necessary to as- 
sure right selection and utilization of: foods; clothing; shelter; 
developmental activities ; recreative activities ; precautions for 
safety against accident; precautions for safety against voca- 
tional strains ; sex activities, etc. 

h. Similarly sanitation uses scientific means to produce needed un- 
derstandings. 

c. Vocational schools — including those of homemaking — rightly de- 

sign to teach all needed science of vocational utilization. 

d. Probably all schools, but especially those for ages 12-18, should 
develop utilization (i.e., liberalizing) courses having as objec- 
tives right standards and practices of utilization in such areas 
as: general current reading; travel; recreation for adult work- 
ers ; and others, in connection with each of which the needed 
science and art would be taught — as "appreciation" subjects. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
MENTAL SCIENCE 

1. The term "mental science" here used (as analogous to "natural 
science" and "social science") to include studies and practices designed 
to give comprehension of operation of mental powers, to develop apprecia- 
tions and ideals as to their control, use and development and to give some 
mastery of processes of such control, use and development. (Compare 
with certain objectives of physical education — ideals of physical develop- 
ment; insight; practice, etc.) 

a. As in case of natural and social science, environment and daily 
experience provide super-abundance of the materials (data, 
facts, experiences, observations) of mental science study for 
all grades from first to twelfth. But present means of mak- 
ing such materials pedagogically available are utterly inade- 
quate. 

h. "How to Study" now a promising approach in grades. But we 
need extensive analysis of specific objectives of learning — e.g., 
how best to memorize poetry, build French vocabulary, learn 
touch typewriting, keep mind from objectionable brooding or 
woolgathering, solve mathematical problems, etc. Doubtful if 
young people can derive advantages from abstract studies of 
learning processes. 

c. For high school, need of some systematic approach to units 
of study important for adolescents, presented objectively, and 
concretely. Pathological aspects and introspective methods 
doubtless should be greatly subordinated. Practical applica- 
tions (even working projects) to be found in control of form- 
ation (or breaking) of specific habits, acquiring certain speci- 
fied forms of knowledge, evoking and giving active effect to 

■i certain sentiments and ideals. Doubtless self-consciousness al- 

ways to be avoided, personal privacy respected, as in teaching 
physiology and hygiene. "Present company excepted" a good 
motto in conference. 

d. Here should be developed also means and methods of realz- 
ing some large objectives of mental training, (a) The ideal of 
"a good memory." May be generalized from experiences with 
many special "powers" of memory — for words, dates, names, 

170 



MENTAL SCIENCE I7I 

faces, logical chains of associated ideas, "visual memories," 
"auditory, olfactory, tactile memories." If "formal discipline" 
(general mental discipline or training through educational 
"simples" — geometry, Latin, bench work, manual-of-arms drill, 
etc.) is possible, its realization must start here in conscious ef- 
fort, (b) "Scientific attitude" towards nature's presentments — 
facts, data, phenomena, principles, laws, (c) Scientific attitude 
towards man's presentments — ^legend, tradition, gossip, rumor, 
verbal report, written report, record, document, monument, and 
other human products used in transmission and increase of 
knowledge. 

2. What shall educators hold as practical doctrine regarding "mental 
training"? General ideals here as real as those of physical training, moral 
character training, etc. For many years to come public will think certain 
studies peculiarly potent to give training in memory, reasoning, observa- 
tion, thinking, concentration, system, neatness, taste, industriousness, en- 
thusiasm for work, common sense, loyalty and other generalized good 
qualities. Teachers must see that this attitude is due to easy mistake 
of assuming one "species" as identical with the "genus." The close and 
persistent "observation" required in proof reading, or Latin composition, 
or drawing obviously will if long practiced result in highly developed 
specific powers; but easy inference that generalized and analogous powers 
are thereby produced probably fallacious in most cases. 

a. Note, however, that certain by-products may "transfer" or 
"spread" to related fields — e.g., ideals of successful accomplish- 
ment, of orderly procedure, of "being scientific," of thus at- 
taining social approval. Some think "methods of work" as 
habits or knowledge also "spread." Obviously this becomes 
a fertile field for educational magic, superstition, quacker>'. 

k. Trace historic beliefs to present as to : "mental training values" 
of verbal memorizations, Latin, geometry, mental arithmetic, 
clay modeling, drawing, introductory science, grammar; "man- 
^ ual training values" of sloyd, drawing "sense training" through 

gifts (of kindergarten), art studies; "physical training" through 
Indian clubs, gymnastics ; "moral training" through punishment, 
precept. 

c. Note almost preternatural specific powers of attention, verbal 
memory, observation, sensitiveness to sound, and industriousness 
developed among primitive men. Have these meaning for ed- 
ucation? What of sensitiveness to harmonies of form (and 
perhaps color) of stone age men in south-western Europe, and of 
Greek craftsmen? 

3. Practical suggestions for educators. Until psychology gives further 
enlightenment, include the following : 

a. Prescribe no subject primarily for mentai training values. 



172 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(What will be effects on Latin, algebra, mental arithmetic, 
sloyd?) 

b. Where approved alpha objectives are defined, give intensive 
specific training of the kinds necessary to their fullest realiza- 
tion — e.g., exactness in needle-work, thoroughness in verbal 
memorizing (where necessary), careful reasoning in prevoca- 
tional mathematics, attention in written composition, etc. 

c. Hold firmly the belief that from sociological study of needs of 
adult life can be derived many new specific objectives capable 
of being realized (in part at least) in school life, and espe- 
cially in that of the transition years from 12 to 18. For example, 
"a scientific (or wholesomely critical) attitude toward printed 
matter of a political nature" is surely needed on behalf of the 
good citizenship of all voters. But it is practicable to begin 
developing this attitude at ten to fifteen years of age by use 
of the media (newspapers, weeklies, commission reports) used 
by adult citizens. (Note needlessness, in presence of wealth of 
current material, of using the "source method" of history for 
this purpose.) 

d. Where experiences in or out of school tend to produce well de- 
veloped specific appreciations, ideals, habits, or knowledge, these 
can be used as interpretative, at least, of new similar qualities 
in which it is desired to enlist interest and effort. Thus may, 
perhaps, be "spread" : the "cooperations" of sports, the loyal- 
ties of gangmembers, the industriousness of scouting, the con- 
centration of fishing, the manual exactness of baseball pitch- 
ing, the scientific interests of homeshop work, the reading in- 
terests of pennydreadfuls, the observation interests of movie 
legends. 

e. As public service towards popular education, form practice when 

confronted by sentimental reflections on mental powers such 
as : "algebra teaches one to work hard," physics "teaches one to 
think," "all I want (as a business man) in my young employees 
is "common sense," of asking: "Of what variety of species are 
you thinking?" 

4. For many young people, wage-earning employment is first drastic 
test of qualities ; and employers naturally charge schools with deficiencies 
revealed. But if current theories are correct, such criticism could be 
fairly and profitably directed only against vocational schools (and vo- 
cational guidance as regards native qualities). 

a. One high school principal reports that employers wanting help 
only ask, of a boy, "Has he pep?" and of a girl, "Is she 
quiet?" Can these be taught? 

b. Many teachers as well as employers complain that young people 
"have not learned to think." Have you learned "to think" — 



MENTAL SCIENCE 173 

about some things only, or all things? How about men and 
women you admire? 

c. Their greatest lack is "common sense" — said of boys, college 

graduates, city dwellers, intelligenzia. Do we or can we "teach 
common sense"? What varieties have you? frontiersman? 
sailors? street gamins? alley cats? astronomers? successful 
politicians ? 

d. Young engineers are often charged with lacking "enthusiasm." 
Have they no enthusiasms? Are they only lacking in strange 
new varieties that employers seek? 

e. What are the specific varieties of the following "powers" that 
schools of dentistry, elementary school teaching, stenography, 
music, indoor salesmanship, and farming, respectively, should 
resolutely seek to produce up to defined standards : neatness, 
exactness, thoroughness, concentration, aesthetic taste, verbal 
memory, logical thinking, alertness, observation, common sense? 



CHAPTER XXXII 

SOCIAL SCIENCE (INCLUDING HISTORY) 

A. General 

Social Science, a division of elementary and secondary education, here 
includes all those studies, practices, readings and other stimuli which are 
chiefly designed to promote more effective social attitudes and action as 
a result of sound knowledge and right appreciation. 

a. The term "social education" is useful to include all by-education 
and direct education making for better group life. In schools 
we can organize: studies of community civics, civil government, 
social geography, contemporary nations, American history, world 
history, biographies, thrift, morals, character, social psychology, 
elementary economics, beginners' sociology, ethics ; practices of 
school self-government, cooperative "clean town" enterprises, 
relief activities, scouting, camping; constructive use of libraries, 
home-reading, moving pictures, newspapers, drama, election 
campaigns, home gardening, police power; wage earning; and 
social (including vocation) guidance. 

1. Problems of general aims or objectives for social science not difficult 
to formulate. Custom gives fairly clear views of the desirable group 
member, (cf. Analysis in Ross : Social Control.) A hundred general 
terms express social virtues of man, as : defender (courage, self-sacrifice, 
patriotism, heroism — opposites in cowardice, poltroonry, peace-at-any 
price, desertion, sneak) ; respecter of property (honesty, fair-dealing, 
square dealing, uprightness; opposites — greediness, fraud, cheating, 
thievery, grafting, covetousness, stealing, predatoriness, filching, roguery) ; 
controller of personal passions (chastity, continence, temperance, absten- 
tion, frugality; opposites — licentiousness, drunkenness, gluttony, gam- 
bling); worker (industrious) provident, thrifty, frugal; opposites — lazi- 
ness, loafing, vagrancy, spendthriftness '; truth-sayer and keeper of 
promises (trustworthiness, truthfulness, reliability; opposites — ^lying, 
deceiving, double-dealing, welshing, perjuring) ; conformer to law and 
custom (law-abiding, self -restrained, peaceful ; opposites — law-breaking, 
disorderly, quarrelsome, peace-disturbing, malicious) ; supporter of weak 
(charity, sympathy, pity, magnanimity, mercifulness, kindliness, benevo- 
lence, altruism, philanthropy, generosity; opposites — malignity, unchari- 
tableness, unforgivingness, pitilessness, mercilessness, spoiling) ; giver 
of justice (just, fair; opposites — unjust, jealous, envious) ; progres- 



SOCIAL SCIENCE 1/5 

sive (liberal, broad, tolerant; opposltes — narrow, Philistine, intolerant, pull- 
back; social initiator (leader, pioneer; opposites — boss, monopolist). 

a. These "social virtues" in the individual have foundations in 
social instincts (analyze) and in tensions between individualistic 
instincts (analyze, e.g., virtuous conduct resulting from in- 
dividual desire for property of others and for approval of 
others). 

b. Conditions of material environment (including food supply, 
etc.) constrain or give openings to these instincts (cf. effects 
of limited food supply on "property-sense," selfishness, owner- 
ship of women; effects of climate on sociability, gregariousness, 
sex relations, parental control ; effects of sea and mountain on 
industry, providence ; effects of desert on conservation of 
property) . 

c. Social environment (including persisting institutions) greatly 

serves to give specific direction to, to intensify or to suppress, 
these instincts, (cf . Effects : of family on early stages of many 
virtues; of gang or clique life on personal qualities; of police 
power on attitude towards law; of church on altruistic qualities; 
of press, stage, library, on extension of ideals ; of vocation on 
self-aggrandizing and conforming qualities; of war.) 

2. But problems of defining specific aims for the direct education (of 
either alpha or beta type) of school are largely unsolved as yet. 

a. In case of forming attitudes or habits, function of school 
necessarily residual in many cases. School does not need to 
"teach" courage, loyalty, honesty, sex continence, truthfulness, 
frugality, industry, toleration, reverence, inventiveness, leader- 
ship, respect for authority; it finds foundations of these in all 
its members. School's function is to "teach" certain new kinds 
or varieties or shades ; to qualify existing standards by new 
valuations. But problems of commanding means of idealization 
(including valuations) and practice (training) very difficult. 

b. School can readily do much towards interpretation — bringing 
unseen and unfelt relationship into view, subjecting old situ- 
ations to play of new lights of appreciations, ideals, e.g. The 
boy aspires to manhood, then to approved manhood; what are 
conditions of lasting approval as to courage, loyalty, temperance, 
industry, etc.? Here will be found large field for social science, 
probably to be handled by "case" and (perhaps) project system. 

c. All teaching of social science designed to react on personal ideals 

and behavior fraught with difficulties of invasion of personal- 
ity — violation of moral "privacy." Large possibilities of dis- 
covery of indirect or "third person objective" methods of ap- 
proach and attack here. 



176 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

d. Community civics, civil government, study of nations (con- 
temporary), and history lend themselves readily to impersonal 
and objective methods; but teaching is often "non-function" on 
that account. 

3. Place of history study in social education. Here several important 
problems. Under what circumstances does history study "function" in 
important social habits, appreciations, ideals, insights, knowledges, etc.? 
(Use of some history might also be promoted for cultural purposes; and, 
in some cases, for other ends.) 

a. Human knowledge of history was early organized (like Latin 
grammar, geometry, algebra, logic, Latin classics, geography). 
Hence easily became traditional element in curriculum of second- 
ary and higher schools. Men of keen minds, seeking exten- 
sion of knowledge, turn naturally to history. Inference that it 
is valuable educational agency easily arises. Vague notion that 
past can guide to future (it certainly can explain the present). 
Democratic citizenship requires general study of history — a 
popular belief. Are fads of history important? generalisations f 
ideals f and for what ages and classes? 

b. History organizes naturally on (1) territorial (or national) and 
on (2) chronological basis. Compare relative importance of re- 
mote and recent history as regards (a) illuminating problems of 
citizenship, (b) fostering approved social ideals, and (c) giving 
appreciation of scientific attitude towards historical data and re- 
cords. How much of chronological history (e.g., American, 
world) is desirable for conception of unity of history? 

c. How can appreciations of social evolutions, development, pro- 
gress be developed ? 

d. Make distinction between "history" and "materials of history." 
Objectives of incorporating latter as found useful, in social 
science study of contemporary problems. Provide for students 
(a) 11 to 14, (b) 15-18, (c) 19-22, series of topics, projects, 
cases in social study for citizenship; in each case what 
"materials of history" can usefully be employed ? 

e. Outline course of "units" in social science designed to give his- 

torical perspective or conception of chronological order, to take 
two per cent of school time each year, ages 6 to 18. 

/. Outline course in current material designed to produce "scientific 
attitude" as regards reports and records for youths 12-18. 

g. In social science for junior high school, what shall be criteria of 
selection of cases, projects, topics and other teaching units? 
Conditions of flexibility of choice for learners? How use his- 
tory? 



SOCIAL SCIENCE 177 

4. Problems of differentiating alpha and beta phases of learning in 
social study are many. 

a. What are varieties (and scope and character of each) of social 
by-education achieved by home, 0-6? 6-12? 12-16? 16-18? What 
are corrrections or reinforcements required by schools? 

b. Same for church? playground? press? stage? police power? 
library? club? vocation (12-18)? 

c. What species or grades of instinctive social qualities are re- 

cognized by schools, for different age, economic, migration, 
racial, sex groups? 

d. What are beta types of school activity in social education for 
ages 4-6? 6-12? Differentiate: social play, mutual aid, standards 
of behavior (including school order), socialized work, "auditor- 
ium" cooperation (Gary), sports, altruistic pursuits, (Boy 
Scout), stories of achievement, current literature of youthful 
ideals, vocation guidance, patriotic songs, stories of peoples, 
stories of individuals. 

e. Are alpha types of social education needed, 6 to 12? What? 

/. What are suitable types of beta school activity in social educa- 
tion, 12-14? 14-16? 16-18? 18-22? Analyze problems of organiza- 
tion; flexibility; adaptation to local environment. 

g. Analyze problems of social education in vocational schools, 
e.g., printing, farming, homemaking (hereafter called sociolog- 
ical phase of vocational education). To what extent of beta 
type? 

5. Analyze Boy Scout movement as means of social education. 

a. Note its utilization of the "natural growth" qualities, its flexi- 
bility of means, its freedom from illusion of formal discipline, 
cumulative character of its devices, its creation of atmosphere 
of idealism. 

B. The Case Group" Approach to Programs of Civic Education 

1. Most adult Americans are now fairly good citizens; but they are 
not good enough to meet our more complex needs and our more exacting 
standards. Hence America wants more and better education for citizen- 
ship; and it seems probable that much of this additional education must 
be expected from schools, rather than from home, churches, community 
contacts, political parties, and the other agencies that have, and supple- 
menting the schools (literacy, discipline, American history, geography), 
given us as good citizenship as we now have. 

2. The citizenship of our men and women now varies greatly. Some 
are very good, some very bad, and many are average in composite good 
citizenship. But also the citizenship of different social groups and classes 
obviously varies greatly. The species "illiterate negro men in the South 
of from thirty to forty years of age" contains some very good and some 
very bad citizens; but the majority exhibit certain prevailing qualities 



178 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(civic virtues and civic vices) that are characteristic. Similarly the species 
"men high school teachers, ages thirty to fifty" contains some very 
good and a few very bad citizens; but the majority exhibit certain dis- 
tinguishable prevailing civic virtues and vices, which are sometimes un- 
like in kind, and often in degree, those exhibited by the species "illiterate 
negro men." 

3. Much of current theory and practice of civic education, following 
the easy ways of deductive reasoning from a priori premises (themselves 
often of doubtful sociological validity) so tends towards assumptions of 
uniformity as to become unserviceably vague, general, Utopian. These 
"lumping" characterizations include: (a) educands — "the boy," "the pupil," 
the high school pupil, the negro, the immigrant, the drafted soldier, the 
new woman voter; (b) objectives — "good citizenship," Americanization, 
patriotism, knowledge of history, obedience to law; and (c) means and 
methods — civil government, American history, the "project method," etc. 
Many of these unanalyzed and undiscriminating Characterizations are as 
primitive and unhelpful as the sweeping formulae of old-time medicine 
and of Bolshevist political science. They tend to rule out of court social 
diagnosis and prognosis. They prescribe uniform treatment for well and 
sick, for those of good as well as for those of bad, civic prospects. They 
ignore the implications of "job analysis" as this might be applied to the 
"job" of citizenship; and their effect is a constant disregarding of .the 
contributions towards approved citizenship of homes, community associ- 
ations, labor unions, the police power, etc. 

4. The situation would not be so confused if the "materials," the "or- 
ganized knowledge," the available subject-matter of civic education, were 
not so superabundant. World history, American history, industrial history, 
political science, "civil government," matter descriptive of local govern- 
mental agencies, economics, social science, and now sociology are as ex- 
tensive and inexhaustible as the oceans of air above us. Like that air 
they contain valuable stories of how fertilizing and dynamic nitrogen is if 
economical processes of fixation can be discovered. Anyone can tap these 
reservoirs ; and any speculative thinker can give opinions as to how profit- 
able fixation — i.e., civic education — ought to be effected. But most pro- 
posals seem to break down in commercial practice (if the analogy be 
pressed). 

5. It is the writer's present opinion that the most promising method 
for the discovery of valid and practicable objectives of civic education 
in schools for various age, environment and (if it should yet seem, de- 
sirable) ability groups, as well as for devising best methods of realizing 
those objectives, is what may be called the "case group" method. The 
chief value of this method is, of course, to force us to consider real human 
beings instead of abstractions, to think in terms of civic qualities as ends, 
and of subject matter as means, instead of as now, thinking of subject 
matter practically as ends in themselves. But other values will also 
appear as we proceed. Let us place ourselves in the position of a com- 



SOCIAL SCIENCE 179 

petent committee of three enjoined to study the entire matter of civic 
education, to point the way to experimentation, and to derive as rapidly as 

practicable, working programs. 

6. First, the committee must agree provisionally upon analytical or de- 
scriptive definitions of what it intends to convey by the terms "citizen- 
ship," "good citizenship" and "education for citizenship." Needless to say, 
much confusion exists here, and at certain points arbitrary decisions may 
well be made. But the definitions will not be serviceable (a) unless they 
indicate analytically which virtues and vices — moral, civic, religious and 
the like — are excluded as well as which are included (e.g. "Is good citi- 
zenship" the same as "good manhood") — (Is education for health or for 
vocation also education for citizenship?) ; and (b) unless they indicate, 
at least provisionally, ratings, for given social groups, of the comparative 
importance of the various virtues and vices detailed. 

7. Next the committee will take for careful study two or more fairly 
well defined social groups, for example : Case M men, college graduates 
of American birth, ages 35-55, in business ; and Case P, "owning" farm- 
ers of American birth, ages 35-55 in Kansas and Nebraska. It may prove 
desirable still further to delimit and define these groups — only experience 
can show. 

A thousand individual cases, selected at random from each group, will 
doubtless show some very "good" and some very "bad" citizens by the 
standards of the definitions. Apart from these extremes large or *'type" 
proportions will be "prevailingly" good in certain respects and prevailing- 
ly "not what they should be" in others. 

It is not necessary to assume (nor would it be practicable now to pro- 
cure) exhaustive social analysis here. Surely competent sociological or 
political observers should, even on the basis of general experience, now 
give fairly reliable answers to questions like these. 

a. Is the proportion of criminals large in either case group? 

b. How do the two groups compare as regards the civic virtues of 
conformity — respect for laws, conservatism, party fidelity, 
payment of debts, general morality, etc.? 

c. How do they compare as respects virtues of initiative — independ- 
ence of political action, reforming spirit, party leadership, social 
aggression, pioneering of revolutions, etc.? 

d. How do they compare as respects specified vices of conformity — 
excessive conservatism, clannishness, opposition to innovations, 
etc.? 

e. How do they compare as respects specified vices of initiative 

(individual or "small group") — such as anarchism, disloyalty, 
disregard of parties, political freebooting? 
/. Wliat, in each group, are the most conspicuous civic shortcom- 
ings which we should like to see corrected in the next genera- 
tion? 



l80 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

8. Among the boys of to-day are many who will succeed to the work, 
opportunities and responsibilities of the adults in the above groups. Let 
the committee temporarily waive the problem of whether we can now 
predict which boys of given age levels will probably do so. Let it as- 
sume for purposes of scientific analysis of objectives, that a large pro- 
portion of the boys now in certain suburbs (Case Ma boys) will succeed 
Case M men and that a large proportion of those in the rural schools of 
Kansas and Nebraska will succeed the Case P men (Case Pa boys). 

Having these respective groups of boys under consideration the com- 
mittee will now proceed to make various prognoses. This word has a 
formidable sound; but, of course, all education procedure to-day rests 
on more or less blind prognostications of what adults would be without it, 
and what they are expected to be with it. 

a. Given substantial continuance of social forces now operative — 
home, school, community environment, rising standards of liv- 
ing, etc. — what will Case Pa boys of ten to sixteen to-day in 
Kansas rural environment probably become in from fifteen to 
thirty years, as respects citizenship? How will they probably 
compare, in prevailing numbers, with their fathers? As re- 
spects what civic virtues will they probably be superior to their 
fathers? Inferior? To what conditions of environment will 
such new civic deficiencies as they may be expected to show 
be probably due? 

b. The social situations into which these boys mature (those who 
remain to become owning farmers) will probably be markedly 
different from those to which their fathers had to adapt them- 
selves. We might prognosticate weakening of historic party 
lines; multiplication of public or government functions; in- 
creased necessity of collective buying, selling, utilization of 
large machines, etc. In what respects will these expected new 
social needs impose requirements for civic qualities that the 
fathers of these boys do not adequately possess? 

c. Where specific programs of civic education in schools are de- 
vised to prevent or correct expected civic deficiencies, what may 
we reasonably predict as to good citizenship 'effects some years 
hence, from citizens who as Case Pa boys now are found to 
grade respectively low, inferior, superior, and high, in intelli- 
gence ? 

9. In the expectation of probable civic deficiencies, programs of pre- 
ventive or corrective civic education would be made. The satisfactory de- 
finition of specific objectives and the determination of means and methods 
would probably necessitate observance of certain principles as, for ex- 
ample : 

a. They should be made on the basis of prognosis of administra- 
tive limitations — usual ages of compulsory or voluntary school 



SOCIAL SCIENCE l8l 

attendance, funds to be had, kinds of teachers and departmental- 
izing of teaching available, methods devised, etc. Some kinds 
of work, for example, could be done if consolidated schools 
and specialized teaching were presupposed. During the next 
few years many of these boys will leave school at 16, with only 
elementary education; what is provided must fit within this 
available time. 

b. Experiment may show the superior availability of certain types 
of means and methods at specified age levels : "developmental" 
(i.e., story, biography) American history, grades 3-6; "pro- 
jective'' American history (formal, purposive), grades 7 and 8 
for facts and ready-made interpretations, grade 12 for critical 
and evaluative (problem) interpretations ; "participation pro- 
jects" grades 6 to 8; "dramatized projects" grades 4 to 7; com- 
munity "concrete contact" civics (of associates groups) grades 5 
to 7; community civics, didactic and slightly observational (fed- 
erate groups), grades 7 to 9; civil government (formal didactic) 
(federate group membership) grades 8 to 10; "self-teaching," 
"thick" books of description, etc., grades 7 to 12; didactic eco- 
nomics or social science, grades 9 to 11; "contemporary social 
problem method," grades 11 to 12. 
From (a) and (b) should, of course, be devised adjustments needed 

for Pa boys. Is the "self-teaching" "thick" book the most promising 

available means for Pa boys? 

10. Similar approaches could be made for Case Ma boys. The eventuat- 
ing programs will probably be unlike in many respects. Should that not 
be expected? Different kinds of boys are being dealt with; the educa- 
tive effects of their environments are very different; their school oppor- 
tunities are far from being the same; the expectations of good citizenship 
that society has a right to expect should probably be very dissimilar. 

11. This method becomes, of course, more difficult where we presup- 
pose extremely dynamic environments. It would be difficult to prognosti- 
cate the adult citizenship of New York boys of Russian Jewish immedi- 
ate ancestry, if schools gave no purposive civic education. The only thing 
certain is that they will be very different from their parents. 

Similar difficulties would be encountered in trying to devise programs 
of civic education for: (a) negro children in northern cities; (b) children 
of Pennsylvania soft coal miners; (c) bright children in poor rural areas 
(most of whom will migrate) ; and (d) children of the "slums." 

12. Several interesting problems appear as results of the general method 
here suggested. In the field of social education (here taken to include 
all objectives primarily of moral, civic, and religious education and ex- 
cluding all objectives primarily physical, vocational, and cultural), edu- 
cational writers have long preferred to float in cloudlands of speculation, 
playing hide-and-seek among the billowing fogbanks of "fundamental 
principles." They have usually avoided concrete contacts with such 



1 82 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

social realities as mental and moral variabilities of native powers, positive 
and negative effects of material and social environments, and the limita- 
tions (modern at least) of what is here called the "didactic" method of 
presentation (formal instruction or training, especially for knowledge). 
• To the present writer it appears: 

a. That as yet we have no acceptable agreed upon formulations of 
what educators mean by citizenship, civism, civic efficiency, 
good citizenship, education for citizenship, and the like. The 
ex parte pleader, and departmental specialist, tend to include 
all virtues, desirable traits, approved qualities, under good 
citizenship. But makers of programs for upper grades obvious- 
ly have in mind chiefly political or "large group" qualities. 
Practical difficulties arise, therefore. Is training in handwriting 
one contribution towards good citizenship? Should we desig- 
nate as "civic education" the learning of a trade? When we 
"instill" love of good music, are we still in the region of civic 
objectives? We greatly need here extensive concrete analysis 
of the qualities — of all kinds — which should constitute objec- 
tives of education; and agreement upon elementary classifica- 
tions and terminology. 

b. That in all programs of civic education (in the limited sense) 
that we now use, mechanistic aspects of social, including poli- 
tical, economic and governmental, action are overstressed ; 
while function aspects, especially those comprehensible to the 
learner, receive insufficient attention. The analogy to methods 
of teaching of anatomy and physiology in former years will 
occur. 

c. That our pedagogic ideals of method give prominent place to 

"activities" in civics teaching; but these are still chiefly "pole- 
star" ideals, the "lighthouse" ideals being largely non-existent 
as yet. Hence our actual objectives take the form chiefly of 
the more or less forceful impartation of knowledge — facts, 
generalizations, dogmas, logically arranged. But it is question- 
able whether even very skillful teachers can make these "di- 
dactic" methods more than partially effective towards function- 
ing standards and habits of later civic behavior. 

d. That we seriously underestimate the inventiveness, amounting 
often to great talent, required to make "activity" methods — 
projects, self-government, cooperative undertakings, public ser- 
vice supervision, — give persistent results. 

e. That we have seriously disregarded and undervalued the sug- 
gestive possibilities for method, of numerous procedures that, 
outside the school, are now actively functional in producing 
some kinds of civic virtues, often without the intervention of 
any conscious educational intent. At one extreme of this type 



SOCIAL SCIENCE 1 83 

is scouting ; at the other the stories, movies, and gang operations 
craved and sought by youth. 

/. That it is especially important for us to examine the possibil- 
ities, as means of certain forms of civic education, for speci- 
fied groups and towards specified ends, of various history 
studies, especially in the two types of situations when: (1) the 
teacher is of average interpreting and inspirational power (for 
that field) and the objective history content is regarded as im- 
portant; and (2) the teacher is expected to be of exceptional 
power and the history content a relative minor means. It is sug- 
gested that probably all current thinking greatly overvalues his- 
tory as a means of social education, except for the rare spirits 
who early develop exceptional constructive social imagination. 

g. And finally, that when we get to the stage of experimental pro- 
cedure in all these fields we shall find ourselves forced to pro- 
ceed through detailed consideration of clearly delimited case 
groups and by means of provisional objectives of the most con- 
crete character. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
GEOGRAPHY 

1. The aims or objectives of geography have in recent writings been 
stated chiefly by geographers — hence over-idealized, sometimes Utopian, 
and nearly always in disproportionate relation to other aims. Confusion 
also results from ease with which it can be made to appear that geography 
should or could be made correlation core of natural science, social science, 
history, vocational guidance. Existing text-books as measures or guides 
to purpose are probably overloaded, over detailed, lacking in differentiation 
of objectives. Materials offered in them are rich, varied, alluring — 
but purposes of prescribed learning nowhere so defined as to assist pupil 
or teacher in selecting individual programs or even in discovering what 
ends to pursue with definiteness and expectation of acquisitions of knowl- 
edge, skills, appreciations, that will persist. 

2. The vocational objectives of geography are highly specialized; there- 
fore no attempt should probably be made to realize them in elementary 
and junior schools. Pre- vocational units could perhaps be defined as 
electives in high schools and colleges ; but in the main offerings should be 
confined to vocational schools. Schools of navigation obviously require a 
highly developed technique of map use as well as command of general 
knowledge. Schools of farming require meteorology, often included as a 
topic in geography (instead of physics where it more logically belongs) ; a 
few selections from physiography (erosion, denudation, sub-surface water 
movements, etc.) ; and probably appreciations of regional specialization in 
farm production, transportation and consumption. It is vaguely held that 
all or some types of commercial schools should teach commercial geog- 
raphy; but the actual objectives of this, or rather the validity of objec- 
tives now held, are very doubtful. 

3. Possible objectives of geography for social education are few but 
probably important, (a) For purposes of liberalizing and rendering socially 
constructive appreciations of our own variegated racial membership, social 
geographic backgrounds of England, Italy, Russia, Japan, Ireland, Ger- 
many, American Indians, negroes, etc., can be studied to advantage. (&) To- 
wards promotion of international harmonies, appreciation studies of eco- 
nomic, governmental cultural qualities of rivaling and other peoples are 
readily practicable, (c) Certain larger international problems of citizen- 
ship — territorial specialization of production, migration of peoples, tariffs, 
international payments in gold, acculturation, sanitation, etc. — require back- 
ground or basic knowledge that is essentially geographic, (d) Similarly 
certain large problems of national and state citizenship — localization of 

184 



GEOGRAPHY 1 85 

production, urbanization of populations, development of means of trans- 
portation, racial or caste segregation, conservation of natural resources, 
large scale sanitation, etc. — have their strongly geographic aspects 
which in some cases might be reached through studies of civic problems, 
in other cases prepared for by topical selection and emphasis (if pur- 
posive) in geography. 

4. But principal objectives of geography doubtless belong under cultural 
education. Include hereunder satisfaction of natural curiosities, general 
knowledge for adult use. Certain facts of geography should be learned 
for travel, etc. 

Problem of first importance here is to distinguish alpha and beta objec- 
tives. Reading a good book of travel is cultural, but may leave no exact 
knowledge for adult use. Certain facts of geography should be learned so 
as to be as readily employed in adult life as the multiplication table. "Mov- 
ing picture" geography is illuminating and for the moment informative — 
but its results do not usually abide. Within limits yet to be defined each 
person supposed to have an eighth grade education should be able to read 
maps, "run down" facts in gazetteer, make geographical inferences. How 
shall we give qualitative or quantitative definition to these objectives? 
Some of the specific problems are indicated when we try to determine: (a) 
What types and degrees of beta geography we should provide children 
under fourteen, normally completing eighth grade at that age — in expecta- 
tion that only vaguest results will be visible at age thirty; or (b) what 
sj-stematic instruction and training we should give in first eight grades in 
expectation of definite results in memorized knowledge, ready skills (e.g., 
map reading, inference) or well established generalizations at age thirty. 
More specifically, for example, having always in mind product of eight 
grades schooling only: 

o. What should be expected definite knowledge (at age 30) of 
South America as to : names and salient facts of principal coun- 
tries ; capital cities ; seaports ; mountain ranges ; exports ; local 
economic developments ; causes of climatic peculiarities of upper 
Amazon, Terra del Fuego, Peruvian seacoast, historical reasons 
for population peculiarities of Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile, 
Argentine ; social effects of specialized export production of 
Brazil, Venezuela, Chile. 

b. As fairly definite residual knowledge products of geographical 
studies what should men of average (eighth grade) schooling at 
age thirty possess as to: significant social characteristics of 
Kaffirs, Turks, people now of Hawaii, Scotch ; significant natural 
resources of Siberia, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Michi- 
gan; significant commodity exchanges between England and 
Ireland, Argentine and United States, Japan and South America, 
Eg}'pt and France ; probable economic and military significance 
in future of Niger, Panama Canal, Mexican oil fields, Cuban 
sugar, Chinese coal, Magdalena Bay; essential climate factors 



1 86 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

in Sahara, Nile, Amazon, Steppes, Palestine, Utah, British 
Columbia, Upper Zambesi. 

c. For same standards of culture, what expectations of definite 

knowledge should be expected of a Lowell, Massachusetts, man 
as to : rivers of Arizona, products of Idaho ; social groupings of 
Georgia ; climatic features of Washington ; economic specializa- 
tions of Wisconsin; cultural attainments of California? 

d. How shall we define kinds and degrees of "beta" influences to 
which we should try to "expose" average learners within first 
eight grades as to : China ; Switzerland ; The Bermudas ; Alaska. 
Differentiate for: books of travel; books of general or special- 
ized (export, social, travel, historic) description; moving pic- 
tures; novels with local "atmosphere"; photographs; oral ac- 
counts from visitors or native bom? What should be standards 
of flexibility, of election within such fields? 

5. The following provisional theses are submitted for examination: 

a. Objectives in geography for the first four grades should be of 
beta types only, with emphasis on local geography, wonder 
stories, "human interest" stories (e.g., Jane Andrt-ws' Ten Boys), 
pictures (moving where practicable), simple map construction 
from local data of experience, map reading, etc. 

b. For grades five to eight inclusive one hundred hours per year 
should be given to beta geography, with very considerable 
latitude allowed to learners as to choice of readings, excursions, 
map-making and map reading exercises, attendance on moving 
pictures, etc. Portions of this "work" can be had outside of 
school hours. 

c. From fifty to one hundred hours yearly should be given in same 

grades to alpha geography, based on clearly defined objectives 
partly of memorized knowledge, partly of skills of map interpre- 
tation and location finding, and partly on powers of generali- 
zation. (These objectives cannot be defined by geographers 
alone — their specialized interests inevitably prevent correct per- 
spective. A committee representing different points of view, and 
especially that of the total curriculum for the grade considered, 
is essential.) 

d. The present type of text book is unservicable. Ideally there 
should be available: (1) a teacher's manual or guide for the 
subject; (2) a "five foot shelf" (at least) of beta class mater- 
ials for pupils' use; (3) a compact little text (possibly two, 
one for grades five and six, another for grades seven or eight) 
defining and exhibiting alpha objectives for pupils. 

e. Any complete correlation in methods of attaining objectives of 
geography with those of history, natural science, etc., is imprac- 
ticable. But where alpha or even beta objectives are defined, 
methods of attaining them may include incorporation of mater- 



GEOGRAPHY 1 87 

ials from other fields as method of enrichment, vitalizatlon (but 
note that this rarely values attainment of objectives of the sub- 
jects correlated to geography). 

High school and liberal arts college curriculums where con- 
siderable flexibility is practicable can well offer elective advanced 
courses in geography of various types. For pupils of geo- 
graphic interests these would prove of almost unsurpassed cul- 
tural and, occasionally, social and prevocational possibilities. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

THE FINE ARTS 

1. The term "fine arts" is here used in contradistinction to useful arts 
— or practical arts — and, in broadest sense, includes : painting, sculpture, 
decorative architecture, material decoration, photography, (graphic and 
plastic arts, using harmonies of form and color and appealing directly to 
the eye) ; song, instrumental music (musical arts, using harmonies of 
sound appealing directly to the ear) ; epic, lyric, essay, novel (literature 
appealing to imagination) ; and dance, drama, opera, cinema, oration, and 
other "art composites." 

a. The primary appeal of the fine arts is to the "aesthetic sensi- 
bilities." Man's equipment of instincts includes many readinesses 
or predispositions to respond to particular forms of aesthetic 
appeal (to "feeling," emotional nature," "sentiments," etc.) 
Note varieties of appeal made by music; contrast with "appeals 
to understanding" (intelligence, scientific imagination, knowl- 
edge) made by various forms of science, record of facts, etc. 
Also note that man's "sense of the useful" — in dwellings, high- 
ways, implements, clothing, printed record, speech, body move- 
ment and carriage (and .also foods, odorous objects, sex re- 
lations, etc.) is often at war with his sense of the "beautiful," 
"tasteful," "aesthetic." Note efforts of most socialized artists 
to reconcile (or rather find optimum resultants) in archi- 
tecture, furniture, fabrics, dress as body decoration, food service, 
sex relations, public speaking, printed matter, etc. (Remark 
attitudes towards the "ornate," "flowery," "perfumed" ; also 
"ginger-bread architecture," "florid oratory," "sentimentality.") 
h. Probably appeals made by fine arts have had "survival" values 
in past for individual and for society — in favoring sexual se- 
lection (still in evidence among animals), mutual aid (in work, 
war, maintenance of order), social sympathy (family, worship, 
amalgamation), transmission of social inheritance (tradition, 
legend, social ideal), making acceptable knowledge ideals. Thus 
resulted reciprocal development of "capacities for response" (in- 
stincts of taste, appreciation, "emotion") and means of arousing 
or awakening such states (harmonies of form and color, odors, 
tastes, in plants ; same, to which add harmonies of sound and 
motion, in animals ; add, for humans, numerous appeals to mem- 
ory, imagination, intelligence). 

c. Note that aesthetic appeals to sight, hearing, imagination and 

i88 



FINE ARTS 189 

understanding represent only so-called "higher" aesthetic re- 
sponses. Of no less sociological importance are aesthetic re- 
sponses to taste (gustatory senses), odor (olfactory senses), and 
touch (tactile senses). Even yet large range of keen aesthetic 
responses may easily be evoked along these lines by foods and 
drinks, perfumes and other odoriferous articles, objects smooth 
or otherwise to touch. Now generally esteemed vulgar to use 
more than slightly and delicately these appeals to "appetites" — 
food, drink, bodily comfort, sex. 

d. Probability that in all fundamental activities of social life, 
utilization of aesthetic appeals (as historically known) steadi- 
ly gives way to "intelligence" appeals — calculation, tested form- 
ula, reasoned action, unemotional deliberation (in a word, 
"science," as against "art"). This clearly true in fields of ol- 
factory and gustatory appeals ; probably true in tactile appeals, 
and those evoked by terpsichorean arts ; apparently true in 
cruder appeals to auditory, visual and imaginative capacities. 
Trace diminishing place of art in work, worship, mating, war; 
in making fundamental appeals for order, self-development, co- 
operation, adequate parenthood, thrift. 

e. But equipment of instincts of aesthetic response still persists. 

In some cases, substantial atrophy without injury possible 
(smell, taste, tactile sense) although morbid manifestations 
frequent. In other cases, use of these appeals to "spice" life, 
to supplement prosaic "drab" activities possible. Note use of 
music, light literature, bodily decoration, dancing, drama, cer- 
tain forms of painting, architecture and sculpture for these 
"diversion," "recreation," "pleasure-giving" functions — and cant 
about "art for art's sake," "pleasure (or happiness) as an im- 
portant end in life," etc. Note also strong tendency of de- 
votees (producers and utilizers of these vestigial art functions) 
to become (or, by selection, to be) freakish, immoral, degen- 
erate (aesthetes, feminine men, masculine women, sex per- 
verts, epicures, mystics, impracticals, dreamers, visionaries, 
charlatans). Note also large intermingling of decadent forms 
of art sensibility in socially pathologic areas — Bohemias, red- 
light districts, "conspicuous consumption" (rich or near rich), 
hotels and restaurants catering to epicurean tastes in food, drink, 
dancing and sex, theatres, "beauty parlors," places of religious 
revival or esoteric worship, etc. 

2. Functioning applications of fine arts in modern social life meeting 
tests of being dynamic and democratic, are at least three : (a) art for 
diversion, recreation after specialized toil, soothing of tired nerves, etc., — 
popular music, moving pictures, dancing (in a degree), long and short 
stories, light drama, illustration; (b) art applied to objects of utility to 
enhance agreeable associations — "good" speech, "artistic" writing (of facts 



190 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

or imaginings), "graceful" carriage, "well-designed" (aesthetic, as dis- 
tinguished from utilitarian, design) tools, implements, books, cars, build- 
ings, roadways, table-ware, clothes, etc.; and (c) art applied in display 
advertising publicity, where attention must be "taken captive" — even 
through the emotions. 

a. Actual social values of these still doubtful. First easily leads 
to excessive, degenerative, morbid forms, second tendency often 
leads to subordination of utilit}^ to beauty — bodily decoration, 
architecture. Display advertising probably now source of 
enormous social waste. 

b. Problems as to other social uses of art for contemporary so- 
ciety. Can it be used to elevate moral and social ideals — 
through song, drama, novel, moving picture? to "enrich" life — 
whatever that may mean? to promote general social understand- 
ing? to perfect the family? to increase diffusion of serviceable 
knowledge? To answer questions of this sort we need more 
knowledge than is yet available both of psychology and of 
sociology. 

c. It is possible that, apart from all general social considerations, 

certain stimulation and development of art-appreciation capa- 
cities essential to wholesomeness. (Theory that vestigial or 
suppressed instincts become centers of "decay" — cf. Freud, 
Jung.) Question as to how far systematic art education may 
be necessary to preserve wholesomeness. 

d. Are the following fine arts obsolescent : sculpture, poetry, seri- 
ous drama, oratory, dancing, music of worship, painting, archi- 
tecture (as a primary rather than subordinate decorative ele- 
ment) ? Answer in terms of: appeal to democratic majorities; 
appeal to few who ultimately influence and direct many, etc. 

3. Probably important functions of school education in art fields where 
utilization is dynamic and popular are : 

a. So to direct such utilization as to lessen anti-social consequences 
— immoral fiction, sensual music, demoralizing moving pictures, 
lascivious dancing, etc. 

b. To insure as far as practicable that "applied art" shall not dis- 
place or distort basal utilities in dress, furniture, books, com- 
munication, etc. 

c. To keep within reasonable social bounds competitive outlay on 

display advertising. 

d. Where practicable, to use art to elevate ideals and social senti- 
ments (perhaps literature only). 

4. Is it desirable to use school education to revive extended appreci- 
ation of obsolescent forms of art — folk-song, folk-dancing, painting, 
"art" or "expression" dancing, monumental architecture, epic, lyric, etc.? 



FINE ARTS 191 

At suitable times, these inhistoric products, may well be stud- 
ied as "history" — but that has no substantial connection with 
art appreciation. 

5. Objectives of school education in art appreciation suggested above 
should all fall within "beta" class — hence freedom of election, methods 
designed to give appreciation, amateur execution, etc. 

6. Persons showing talent as potential producers of socially valuable 
art (not yet clear what that is) should be given early encouragerrient and 
support to specialize as high grade producers. Specialized vocational 
schools desirable for these. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

ENGLISH LITERATURE 

L English literature is now generally regarded as the most important 
"cultural" subject in public schools; but its actual objectives are not es- 
tablished. The following facts are important for perspective : 

a. Literary selections have always been used in elementary schools 
in connection with teaching of "reading." In days when read- 
ing matter was scarce the ablest and most imaginative pupils 
often developed genuine literary appreciations for this frag- 
mentary but choice material. 
h. Until recently American secondary schools did not seek to teach 
"literature." But for many years they aimed to teach (a) the 
history of literature and {h) the mechanics of literature. 
(Even yet many English schoolmen insist that "literature can- 
not be taught") The history of English literature has usually 
followed the chronological order and has included (o) bio- 
graphical data of writers, (&) extracts from best known works 
and, sometimes, (c) contemporary influences, "From Mil- 
ton to Tennyson" is a type. Recent tendencies have been to- 
wards diminishing numbers of writers "to be learned" and 
lengthening representative selections. The mechanics of litera- 
ture has been taught as rhetoric, sometimes as advanced com- 
position. 

c. During last twenty-five years signal advances have been made 
in extending supplementary reading, library reading, magazine 
reading, etc., in upper grades. Libraries and schools have 
evolved extensive lists of "suitable" books, some classic, some re- 
cent, suited to various ages. Results certainly suggest success- 
ful "teaching of literature" of one kind — the formation of read- 
ing interests and, perhaps, tastes. 

d. During same period joint committees on college entrance stand- 
ards have programmed courses in literature for high schools, 
first apparently as common basis for tests in composition and 
rhetoric but latterly, apparently, for something more ambitious. 
Selections recommended still reflect preoccupations with the 
"historic survey," and "knowing something" of leading authors. 
But vague realization of needs of new objectives is apparent, 
especially in books and articles for teachers. 

192 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 193 

2. Why should time and money of public schools be used in "teaching 
literature"? Sociologically valid replies to this query are still wanting. 
These considerations are important: 

a. Strong instinctive desires exist in all for stories, legends, fables, 
songs, speeches. Orally communicated literature has doubtless 
existed for many hundreds of centuries and interests in it have 
been communicated universally by usual channels of social imi- 
tation. 

b. When once mechanics of reading have been fairly well mastered 
strong interests in certain types of fiction and some other 
reading developed without further aid of schools. Note vogue 
of novel, short story, fiction-filled magazine, newspaper reports 
of court proceedings. Recall efforts of librarians to keep 
"boys" in France supplied with reading matter. Interpret facts 
as to "best sellers," Saturday Evening Post, Robinson Crtisoe, 
the "five foot shelf," Dickens, Scott, Longfellow, popular after- 
noon newspapers. Study the sales counter of a railway station. 

c. Example, suggestive and purposive teaching, skillfully applied, 
can shift, develop, and "elevate" reading interests. Certain 
agencies of by-education — home companionship, library, news- 
paper, stage — do this constantly now. Teachers can aid, especi- 
ally towards types or examples not made familiar by social 
suggestion. 

d. Is the function of the school, then, chiefly to "lead on" the reader 
with tastes already partly evolved, to new and "higher" ap- 
preciations, interests, insights? Many of us now approve these 
purposes "on faith." But we need something more than "faith 
objectives." These have not guided us well as to standards and 
real values. They cause us to impose our pedantic, "high brow" 
standards, or to spend time chiefly in anatomical study of clas- 
sics. 

3. Quest for valid objectives in teaching literature in schools and to- 
wards influencing writers, press, stage, home and libraries at once en- 
counters problems of definition. What is literature? 

a. For practical purposes we might include substantially all read- 
ing matter that is not informative reports (news, technical history, 
science) and vocational information. We should therefore in- 
clude orally told stories ; all of current fiction, popular descrip- 
tion, and even popular (non-technical) science and history. St. 
Nicholas, the Sunday supplements. Mother Goose, the Rollo, Al- 
cott, and Coffin Series, as well as the photodrama would thus 
have a place in programs of teaching literature — if only in place 
of departure. 

b. In school education, certainly, no useful purpose could be served 
by restricting the term as "artists desire." This would mean 



194 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

imposition of "high brow" adult standards, perpetuation of 
mediaeval aristocratic ideals as to "exclusive" learning. It 
tends to undue worship of the past, of the pursuit of "art for 
its own sake" (always a false sociological lead, and only helpful 
to sustain immature aspirants through a period of uncontami- 
nated and apparently disinterested effort). 

c. Ultimate definitions should be based upon "social functionings," 
not on principles of structure. "Literature is what literature 
does." Instinct and experience give rise to cravings for con- 
tent — information, interpretations, emotions, sensations. When 
the materials suitable to produce these are presented with some 
regard to form we have the "functioning" effects of literature. 
But genuine interests vary greatly — often because of "original 
nature," apparently, and often because of effects of environ- 
ment. Only a few can be genuinely interested in the litera- 
ture that is old and hence must use imagery alien to contemporary 
life. A few situations of course — courtship, individual combat, 
contests with nature, personal religious experiences — exhibit a 
kind, of unchangeableness ; while the uncritical mind of child- 
hood seldom seeks realistic elements in fable and fairly tale. 
But in the main popular requirements call for certain types of 
realism in content. In a sense not always understood by ped- 
ants popular demand is for literature that "interprets life" — 
especially the life that is a bit more significant, fruitful, free, at- 
tractive than our own. This the content: and the setting gives 
the form. We could advantageously press analogy with food. 
We need and demand nourishment — this is the content; and we 
desire attractive service — this is the form. 

4. Problems of "social purposes" or "functioning" of literature In so- 
ciety generally require solution before possible uses in education can be 
defined. Some of these problems are the same as those of "fine arts" in 
general. Others are peculiar to literature because of its accessibility (in 
recent centuries especially) and its relatively small employment of the 
senses (compared with other "fine arts"). 

a. From standpoint of producer, literature is often included in 
concept, "art for art's sake." Were Homer, Euripides, Juvenal, 
the writers of Jdb and Ecclesiastes, Plutarch, Dante, Milton, 
Bunyan, Pope, Tennyson, Dickens, Whittier, Lowell, Whitman, 
Kipling, Wells, Oliver Schreiner, Tolstoi, Shaw, Zane Grey, 
H. B. Wright, Serviss, Masters, animated by "social purposes"? 
What of Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Tasso, Chaucer, Shakespeare, 
Addison, Byron, Keats, Swinburne, Poe, Wilde, Henry James, 
Amy Lowell? 

h. What do "the people" get from "great" literature? pleasure? 
ideals? vision? common standards and sentiments? substitutes 
for experience? Analyze some customary hypotheses. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 195 

c. What do "the people" get from popular (and often fugitive) 

literature — fiction, short story, ephemeral poetry, magazine ar- 
ticle? low standards? democratic ideals? pleasure? widened 
comprehension? satisfaction of emotional longings? Why do 
we sometimes say such literature is demoralizing"? Under 
what conditions is it elevating? How effective is (or could be) 
censorship in "improving" this literature? 

d. What are essential characteristics of "literature" to which large 
numbers of children 2 to 5 (to whom orally presented) "take 
naturally" (even "eagerly and hungrily") ? Children from 6 to 
10? from 11 to 14 (boys)? from 11 to 14 (girls)? 15 to 18 
(boys of superior economic rank) ? Do. (of low economic 
rank) ? 15 to 18 (girls of superior home environment) ? Do. 
(of poor environment) ? 

e. How successful have schools and colleges been in developing 

enduring interests in classic literature? Were these classics 
written for younger readers? (Examples? Did educated youths 
"take" to them when they were fresh? What "classic" literature 
still has natural fascination for childhood? adolescent youth? 
/. For the effective "functioning" of literature (in any specified 
way) is a degree of contemporaneity essential? Is it easy or 
even practicable for us to-day to apperceive or apprehend the 
"miHeu" of Sophocles? Caesar? Tasso? Dryden? Wordsworth? 
Cooper? Consider separately as regards: (a) mating love; (6) 
war; (c) man's knowledge of the world and universe; {d) 
man's belief in, and attempted intercourse with unseen person- 
alities (religion) ; {e) prevailing ideals of democracy; (/) 
control of natural forces; {g) fatalistic convictions; (h) other 
large social and personal elements. 

g. Is human nature "always the same"? To what extent have 
abolition of slavery, spread of scientific knowledge, development 
of complex mechanisms in war, development of trade unions, 
employment of capital, science and invention in production, ris- 
ing standards of living, mobility of labor, rational control of 
sex morals, and "placing the gods far beyond Olympus," made 
it difficult to respond to old literature (except on part of cults 
devoted to the antique, or followers of the illusion of the 
"Golden Age behind") ? To what extent do these entail re- 
quirement of contemporaneity as a condition for many kinds 
of "functioning" of literature? 

5. Problems of elevating native interests in literature as a "mental 
play," or "intellectual nurture" agency appear when we recognise natural- 
ness, universality, and developmental character of these spontaneous in- 
terests. 

a. All children manifest intellectual hunger for stories, orally pre- 
sented. Almost all will continue this interest in printed pre- 



196 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

sentations, if mechanics of silent reading are mastered sufficient- 
ly well and early (cf. popularity of cheap fiction, popular journ- 
als, etc.). Standards of production will rise with improvement 
of demand. Note economical character of this form of "beta" 
education. Means found in schoolroom reading, school libraries 
for home reading, circulating libraries, public libraries. Harm- 
ful effects of adult "goody" standards, and of artificial "art" 
standards. "Reading aloud" by teachers as important prelude 
to self -motivated silent reading even in case of older pupils 
being initiated on higher levels. (Can teachers generally read 
aloud well?) 

6. Literature obviously very potent in producing ideals, attitudes, appreci- 
ations, valuations, standards, sentiments, aspirations. Hence, very potent 
in character formation, and in impelling to action involving feeling ele- 
ments. Problems of purpose: to what specific ends can it be used? Prob- 
lems of means: what literature can be used? Problems of method: how 
must it be used? 

a. For pragmatic purposes in social education (formation of so- 
cial character, inspiring to social action) literature must be of 
vital, holding interest. "Forcible feeding" of little avail. Liter- 
ary analysis, searching for moral, anatomical study of literary 
cadavers (as apperceived by learners) doubtless bad — ^the in- 
trusion of adult and pedantic standards. 

b. But for realization of definite objectives in social education 

(e.g., humane treatment of animals, the "square deal" in busi- 
ness relations, sexual continence, subjection of crude combative 
instincts, patriotism (a very vague end), keeping "physically fit," 
respecting the aged, honest voting, efficient use of time, playing 
a "fair game," keeping one's word, the "successful life," (not 
"quitting," etc.) doubtless useful literature can be found. But 
probably it must be used impersonally, individual learner must 
not be made self-conscious, certain privacies must be re- 
spected. "Goody" good teachers cannot promote this cultiva- 
tion — they are too prone to violate privacies, to pull up sprout- 
ing plants for open air inspection. Art of attaining these ends 
probably one of most difficult in education. 

7. Problems of relating literature to venacular language very con- 
fusing. Use of term "English" without qualification, bad. Doubtful if 
any close connection ought to exist between vernacular language and 
vernacular literature studies — purposes not merely unlike, but very remote 
from each other. 

a. Literature will doubtless be used in language study — mechanics 
of reading, spelling, composition, vocabulary building, voice 
training, silent reading, grammar, rhetoric, etc. — but not to real 
ends of education through literature; in fact, literature so used 
is spoiled for those purposes. Literature is an appreciation study 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 197 

— language mostly a series of specified power objectives (ca- 
pacities to do work). 

h. Probable that language studies, aiming towards specific powers 
(of execution) should be carried on through vital, vigorously 
held thought (ideas, feelings) content of learners, rather than 
through weakly apprehended, second-hand content of literature, 
(cf. Bad effects of imitating styles, of communicating second- 
hand ideas — affected culture, etc.) Capacities to appreciate far 
outrun powers of expression, communication. Literature suit- 
able to third grade might be used for sixth grade language; 
literature apprehended at 14 might be used as language "cada- 
vers" at 18. 

8. Study of "history of literature," "evolution of literature," etc., be- 
longs under social science studies (which see). 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
PRACTICAL ARTS 

1. "Practical Arts" here include all activities derived from productive 
activities of adults and adapted to schools for purposes of general edu- 
cation. 

a. Possible objectives in general education include: satisfaction of 
instincts for construction, manipulative execution, use of tools, 
fabrication of objects of play, etc. (forms of growth through 
play, amateur participation) ; instruction and training in stand- 
ards of utilization (man as consumer, taste, appreciation, in- 
sight, socialized utilization) ; vocation guidance (through sampl- 
ing of materials, standards, and processes of calling) ; sociali- 
zation through development of appreciation of activities of 
other social classes — city boys' gardening, farm boys' weaving 
of consumers equipment — house repair (plumbing painting, 
electric work, concrete, lock repair, etc.), personal clothing, 
amateur cooking, nursing, etc. 

b. Activities based upon adult productive work introduced into 
schools to train future workers are vocational. Practical arts 
education rarely has discernible vocational outcome. 

c. Attempts to combine vocational education and liberal education 
through practical arts probably defeat ends of both. Desirable 
pedagogical methods fundamentally unlike. 

d. Should "practical arts" be always a beta subject? — vocational 
education always an alpha subject? 

2. For convenience we may classify practical arts subjects as follows : 

a. Agricultural arts : home gardening ; treeplanting and nursing ; 
poultry raising; food packing; "corn club" work; pig clubs; 
milking, butter and cheese making; fruit drying; farm products 
marketing; farm mechanics; etc. 

b. Industrial arts; cloth weaving; house repair and building; house 

painting; installation of screens, drainage, water supply, electric 
bells, electric lighting, central heating; machine dissection and 
reassembly (sewing machines, guns, lawn mowers, stoves, 
pumps, bicycles, motors, optical instruments, vacuum cleaners, 
washing machines, lathes, etc.) ; bookbinding; printing; photo- 
graphy; wall papering and decoration; fabrication of play- 



PRACTICAL ARTS 199 

ground apparatus; furniture making; tool sharpening; wall 
building; road construction; boat building; photomounting ; 
engraving; mechanical draughting; pottery and glass making; 
shoe repairing; tailoring and clothing repair; and scores o£ 
others. 

c. Commercial arts; typewriting; business penmanship, arithmetic, 
documents, English; display advertising; selling; bookeeping; 
package making; comptometer; filing; banking; telegraphy; 
dictaphone; etc. 

d. Household arts : kitchen cooking ; camp cooking, food cooking, 
food buying ; food serving ; house planning; toy house construc- 
tion; home (or room) decoration; furniture choosing, distribut- 
ing, upkeep; bed-making; repair (or upkeep) of apparatus for 
plumbing, heating, lighting, cleaning, ventilating, screening, cook- 
ing, sewing, infant nursing (feeding cleaning, dressing, exercis- 
ing) ; sick nursing; decorative window and yard gardening; 
clothing buying, making, repairing; accounting; entertaining; 
festivals ; and many others. 

e. Nautical arts: fishing; fish planting; boat making; boat sailing; 

etc. 

3. Fundamental principles affecting objectives: 

a. The amateur spirit must dominate. Rarely should there be 
prescription. Exclusion from participation should attend fail- 
ure to show and sustain true amateur and progressive spirit. 
Flexibility of offerings should be as great as administrative 
facilities will permit. Much reading, illustration, etc., should 
illumine work. Natural interests should control selection of en- 
terprises. 

b. Offerings (so named when presented or suggested by school; 
may be called "enterprises" from standpoint of learners) should 
take form of concrete, objective units, each fully described by 
printed matter, pictures, models, etc. These units (enterprises) 
should approximate ascertained scope, length, for preservation 
of iijterest, suggestion of accomplishment. Minimum time, for 
learners 12-14 perhaps one hour; maximum, sixty hours. 

c. Enterprises will be of several kinds: school execution projects; 

home execution projects; reading and report projects; cases (for 
investigation and oral report) ; topics (for reading and study) ; 
problems (for solution). 

d. Some enterprises may be cooperative ; others, individual. 

e. Does the subject "belong" to schools after 16 years of age? 

4. Of the "subjects" named under (2) which would probably somewhat 
"function (A) for the boys of a high grade suburban environment and 
(B) for the boys of an inferior manual working class environment in 



2CX) EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

these directions: (a) vocational guidance; (b) "handy man" and useful 
vocations; (c) education in utilization (consumers) including "cultural 
appreciations" ; (fi) correlation centers for other subject matter: and (e) 
enriching experience (development) ? 

5. Given junior high school in prosperous commercial city with few poor 
or immigrant families. Five hundred girls, 400 up to grade and 100 re- 
tarded. "Home making" economics is offered in high school, and also 
to wage-earning young women and to housewives. Girls live at home; 
share lightly in home work in school time, and considerably during va- 
cations. Most of them will become wage-earners at 16-18, except twenty 
per cent who will go to college. Present interests in home and household 
work low. 

Assume means available to provide practical arts work (except com- 
mercial) analogous to that proposed above for boys. Assume expectations 
that vocational aims will be met later and that chief purpose here will be 
"liberalizing." Assume freedom of girls to elect from offerings above for 
boys, and also from generous program of household arts offerings. Give, 
on lines suggested below (A) your present carefully analyzed opinions and 
(B) your suggestions for needed investigations. 

a. What do you assume to be available "instincts" or interests that 
could be discovered for practical arts work? 

b. Would lines suggested for boys be freely elected? Would results 
and effects be similar to those accruing to boys? 

c. What would you set up as a series of specified "liberaling" ob- 
jectives in household arts? Cover wide range including: his- 
torical readings about homes and household processes ; readings, 
pictures and visits to such "variant" homes or functions as hotels, 
asylums, barracks, bakeries, creameries, furniture factories, hospi- 
tals, power laundries ; sampling projects of the ways "other people 
do"; amateur analysis of soap, water, foods, fabrics; "coopera- 
tive projects" (between home and school) as to meal prepara- 
tion, room care, child care, adult sociability, clothing repair, 
accounting, home management, sick nursing; cooperative ama- 
teur projects in school and community — visiting poor, providing 
entertainment, school cafeteria service, school entertainments, 
dances, etc. ; technical studies of home economics science. 

d. Following suggestion from (4) above what would you plan as 
needed equipment, programs, teaching service, budget provis- 
ion, etc.? 
6. Work out detailed scheme for "commercial practical arts," on basis 
of grades seven and eight in junior high school, some vocational courses 
to begin at end of grade eight, and more advanced at end of grade ten. 



PRACTICAL ARTS 20I 

Problems 

7. Given large junior high school (7th and 8th grades, and all retarded 
pupils over 12 years of age) with 600 boys. School session eight hours 
daily, of which three hours may normally be devoted to physical sports 
and practical arts. Previous experience suggests that, given good program 
and facilities, 400 of these boys, including all retarded, will elect from one 
to two hours daily of gardening and shop practical arts. Rest prefer 
either "commercial arts" or sports exclusively. 

Facilities available are as follows: (a) For gardening (usually about 
150 boys) home yards in 100 cases, and rented five acres (fenced) suitable 
for individual gardens for 50. School has reading room and small labora- 
tory and tool house (2X25). (b) For shop work. About 100 boys live 
in owned houses with yards, rest in rented houses or flats (chiefly latter). 
School provides one large "factory type" room, 50X80 with partitional 
alcoves for tool storage, photography, gluing room, etc., besides mezzanine 
space 160X10 for exhibits, museum species, book shelves, etc. Electric 
power is provided for individual driven machines, and at present there are 
available the following power driven machines : two small wood turning 
lathes, one hand saw, one plane, one circular saw, one emery grinder, one 
large grind stone, one medium metal turning lathe, one power press. An 
inadequate supply of tools and materials for the following are available; 
wood-working, beaten brass working, forging, semi-precious metal work- 
ing, job printing, photography, electric wiring, automobile repair, vulcaniz- 
ing, shoe repairing, rug weaving, tool sharpening. No satisfactory "course 
of study" exists. You are asked (A) to express detailed opinions as to 
following and (B) to indicate needed investigations to provide further 
knowledge. 4 

a. Should a minimum of practical arts be "prescribed" for all boys 
in this school? Why? What kinds? What amounts? 

b. If left elective, what should be primary objective (one in each 
case) and what secondary objectives (several possibly) that 
should control character of offering? 

<. Would you try to preserve "class" organization, or leave work 
to "individual" takings, (as now in home garden) ? 

d. Would you enforce any "order" in which "subjects" — e.g., wood- 
working, printing, gardening, semi-precious metal working, etc., 
should be taken up? Why? Would you require all boys to 
take all subjects? (Compare with games on playgrounds, badge 
activities in scouting, etc). 

e. Give examples of suitable teaching units (topics, exercises, prob- 
lems, projects, models, as you see fit) under these heads: print- 
ing, woodworking, photography, wireless, housewiring, shoe re- 
pair, forging, painting, steel turning, home gardening. 

/. Give suitable units that might respectively "function" as : exer- 
cises; individual productive work for home or gift; same for 



202 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

self; same for schools; same for town; group productive work 
for school; same for one home; same for town. 

g. Back of certain selected types of work indicate kinds of ex- 
amples, pictures, printed descriptions you would desire to have 
for suggestiveness if you could. 

h. Back of certain selected types of work indicate the kinds of 
equipment you would desire if it could be had. 

i. Selecting one type of work — woodworking, for example — indicate 
how far you would desire that: (1) there be available for each 
pupil electing it, printed lists of suitable projects, printed book- 
lets, illustrated by drawings, or details for each project, and 
exhibits of commercial and amateur work, from which pupil 
would be expected to procure nearly all necessary guidance, the 
teacher serving chiefly in consultative capacity; (2) the work of 
each pupil could be individual; and (3) each pupil obtain as 
much suggestion as practicable from others. 

y. Having in mind the types and amounts of work you would re- 
commend for this school, estimate probable annual cost per 
pupil (400) for ; ten per cent on capacity outlay ; maintenance 
of fixed equipment ; supplies ; teaching service ; quota of over- 
head administration; miscellaneous. Is it worth it? 

k. Throughout above analysis would you give "retarded" boys same 
opportunities as those up to grade? Why? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

1. The statistics of the agricultural vocations in 1910 were as follows: 

Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations, and 
in agricultural occupations. {U. S. Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 

Agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry 10,851,702 1,807,501 

Dairy farmers 59,000 2,500 

Dairy farm laborers 32,000 2,500 

Farmers 5,600,000 250,000 

Farm laborers 4,500,000 1,500,000 

Fishermen and oystermen 68,000 500 

Gardeners, florists, fruit growers, and nurserymen 130,000 8,000 

Garden, greenhouse, orchard and nursery laborers 125,000 7,000 

Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers 150,000 77 

Stock herders, drovers and feeders 60,000 885 

Stock raisers 51,000 2,000 

All others in this division 90,000 11,500 

2. For farmers (owners, tenants) commonly and for farm laborers 
frequently the agricultural vocations are relatively composite, specialized. 
Types can be distinguished by "major lines of production" (usually for 
market) and minors often for home consumption and sometimes for 
market, 

a. Give brief "job analysis" of the majors and two minors of the 
following types of owning farmers: (1) dairy farmers, cen- 
tral New York state; (2) potato grower; (3) general farmer, 
Iowa type; (4) Texas cotton grower ; (5) Montana wheat grow- 
er; (6) general farmer, central New Jersey type (7) Connecticut 
valley tobacco grower; (8) California orange grower; (9) 
general farmer, WilHamette Valley type; (10) Long Island 
market gardener; (11) New Mexico range cattle grower; (12) 
other types, from experience of students. 

h. Describe three types of "tenant farming" of the "permanent" 
type (not moving towards landownership) in cotton growing, 
market gardening, and wheat growing. 

c. Describe three types of "transitional" tenantry (young man 
moving towards ownership) in North Mississippi Valley general 
farming. Virginia tobacco growing, and Pacific slope fruit 
growing. 

d. Analyze reasons why following types of farming tend towards 
"corporation" basis: cane sugar (Louisiana, Hawaii, Cuba), 

203 



204 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

bananas (Costa Rica), beet sugar (note modified forms with 
partial tenantry or even ownership), California, Colorado, 
Montana, apples, (Oregon, Washington), sheep (Montana), green 
house gardening (near large cities), garden seeds, paper pulp 
wood, winter vegetables (Texas, South Carolina, etc.). (Add 
others.) 

€. Analyze reasons why following stages in agricultural produc- 
tion or marketing tend towards corporation basis ; sugar refining, 
fruit drying, fruit canning, butter and cheese making, lumber 
making, oyster packing, beet seed growing, cattle slaughtering, 
(add others), 

/. Suggest methods for "job analysis" in terms respectively of (1) 
manual skills, (2) related technical knowledge, (3) general 
vocational appreciations, and (4) managerial powers in reason- 
able optimum measure, of the following vocations : owning general 
farmer, investment $40,000, in Northern Illinois; negress farm 
hand, Georgia cotton growing district ; "general manager," salary 
$4,800, green house florist company near Boston ; live stock own- 
ing farmer, Nevada; general utility hired man, Nebraska; 
Hawaiian sugar plantation hand (Japanese) ; tenant wheat 
grower (large scale), Montana. (Apply others.) 
3. Agricultural education has two fundamental types : (A) for purposes 
of general education and (B) for purposes of vocational proficiency. Latter 
may be (a) basic (presupposing no previous utilizaible experience) or (&) 
extensions (experience or knowledge on which extension can be based. 
Furthermore, both types could primarily aim to give : (a) manual skills ; 
(&) manual skills and immediately related technical knowledge; (c) tech- 
nical knowledge chiefly; or (J) manual skills, related technical knowledge 
and managerial skills in known proportions. 

a. Agricultural arts (home gardening, readings, laboratory experi- 
ments, window and school gardening) can be made attractive 
and illuminating beta study, especially for city and village boys 
not being reared on farms. Especially suited to ages 10-16. The 
subject suffers now like household arts, from misguided efforts 
to make it "vocational," especially for country boys. 

h. Basic agricultural education tends towards several types; (1) 
for farm or village boys, ages 14 to 18, on home project basis; 

(2) for farm reared young men, 18-30 (in short courses or 
winter schools, looking especially to managerial powers; and 

(3) collegiate, for agricultural specialists, technical managers. 
c. Extension agricultural education takes many forms; (1) short 

course, chiefly lectures and laboratory, for experienced farmers ; 
(2) correspondence and home lecture courses, 
d. .Note almost complete absence of systematized apprenticeship, 



AGRICULTURAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 205 

historically, in agricultural vocations; but also efficacy of "pick 
up" methods where children share work with parents, in pre- 
scientific stages (examples, Belgian, French, Chinese, Japanese, 
intensive gardening). 

4. Probability that effective agricultural education of lower than profes- 
sional grade can be conducted only on basis of initial high differentiation 
with progress towards composite occupations. 

o. For example: at outset boy learns effectively to raise chickens, 
or a mixed garden; or to care for half dozen cows and their pro- 
duct; or to raise potatoes; or mastery of some other commer- 
cial specialty. 

b. At outset all agricultural science, economics, accounting and art 
should center primarily in project specialty as alpha field. Sup- 
plemental general reading (general, agriculture, etc.) as socio- 
logical phase (on beta basis) should occupy clearly secondary 
place. 

c. If general education is continued, it should be on beta basis 
and lie outside of working day (as music, literature, current 
reading) for practicing farmers. 

5. Organization of agricultural department ought to be practicable in 
every agricultural area of 400 families. Department can be effective with 
one teacher and 14-20 pupils. 

6. Problems. 

a. Shall immediate objectives of training be the agricultural em- 
ploye, the renter, or the independent farmer? Probabilities that 
farming will entail larger use of capital, available only to in- 
heritors or to responsible borrowers. Possible tendencies to- 
wards intensive small area farming, and opportunities for renter. 

b. Probable increase in demand for well qualified laborers — cor- 
responding to specialists in industries and commerce. Difficul- 
ties of seasonal work. 

iC. Need of survey of needs and opportunities of agricultural pro- 
/ ducers as preliminary to vocational training. 

7. Because objectives of agricultural education are now excessively gen- 
eralized, questionable efforts are made to have "credit for college admis- 
sion" given, and offerings are often warped to this end. 

0. Assume practical agricultural school taking boy of 15, graduate 
of eighth grade, and in two years giving him practical skills and 
technical knowledge fitting him to be a "skilled employee" in 
poultry farming, and, when sufficiently mature, an independent 
manager; what credit for these two years would desire to have 
him given towards admission to : a college of liberal arts ; a 
college of medicine; a college of agriculture? 



206 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

8. Problems: 

a. Analyze from experience five successive days work in one of the 
following vocations: (1) Milk producer for city, northern New 
York State, January; (2) "general farmer," Iowa, May; (3) 
raisin vineyard owner, California, August; (5) market gardener, 
Long Island, September. Give separate consideration to factors 
of manual skill, technical knowledge, and managerial function. 

h. An agricultural school, admitting only boys from farms (ages 
15-17, of at least elementary school education) trains for "home 
project" method. Boy A (entering) elects a poultry project 
Boy B (after one year in potato project) elects dairy project, 
renting cows from father. Estimate optimum requirements and 
expectations in each case as to : 

(1) Number of hours per year to be given to: practical 
productive work; related technical study; "general voca- 
tional studies ," 

(2) Financial magnitude of project — capital utilized, total re- 
ceipts, net receipts, wages, profits, average earnings per day. 

(3) Magnitude of project in terms of number of animals, 
land to be used, tools to be rented, etc. 

(4) Variety of "side" or minor projects — farm mechanics, 
marketing, etc 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
COMMERCIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

1. The statistics of the commercial vocations in 1910 were as follows: 

TaMe showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations, and 
in commercial occupations. (C7. S. Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 

Trade i , 3,140,582 468,088 

Bankers, brokers, and money lenders 103,000 2,500 

Clerks in stores 275,000 111,500 

Commercial travelers 161,000 2,500 

Deliverymen - , ,. .( 22,9,500 150 

Insurance agents and officials 95,000 2,500 

Laborers in coal and lumber yards, w'house, etc. 80,500 673 

Real estate agents and officials 123,000 3,000 

Retail dealers 1,128,000 67,000 

Salesmen and saleswomen 663,500 258,000 

Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters 50,000 925 

All others in this division 139,000 15,000 

Clerical occupation 1,143,829 593,224 

Agents, canvassers, and collectors 96,000 9,000 

Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants 299,500 187,000 

Clerks (except clerks in stores) 598,000 123,000 

Messenger, bundle, and offce boys 97,000 11,000 

Stenographers and typewriters 53,000 263,000 

2. But in practice commercial vocations are far more specialized than 
appears above. "Clerks in stores" become more specialized in large cities. 
Drug clerks and sellers of silk hosiery have no "powers of execution" in 
common except derivative abstract "psychology of selling," knowledge of 
customers, etc., as generalized by educational mystics. The same is true 
of deliverymen, retail dealers, salesmen, agents, clerks and others. 

a. When actual requirements of a given vocation are studied — by 
job analysis — and the qualities of the present B grade workers 
are studied, difficulties of proving programs diminish. For 
example: assume discovered annual demand in large city for 
100 counter saleswomen of leather goods — purses, pocket-books, 
etc. — each year. Study of present occupants of vocation gives 
sex, age of usual entry, and usual wages : job analysis shows 
kinds of personality, native abilities, general education, voca- 
tional knowledge and skills of the more successful. A voca- 
tional school can then readily set up standards of admission, 
courses of initial full-time schooling (vocational) and courses 
of part-time schooling plus part-time "practice" under super- 
vision. 

207 



208 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Similar procedures would give courses for : sellers of life in- 
surance, drug store clerks (not pharmacists), sellers of kitchen 
utensils, travelling salesmen for fire arms, etc. 

b. For many commercial callings direct vocational education for up- 
grading — at ages 18, 22, 26, 30 — probably very desirable. This 
field offers large number of "juvenile vocation openings"; but 
in many cases experience on one level does not prepare for 
advancement to higher levels, owing to specialization (note 
"help wanted" advertisements in papers, especially for girls). 

c. "Indoor" clerical work and salesmanship are rapidly becoming 
"women's" (or, more properly, girls') vocations. A small pro- 
portion of women workers remain celibate and for them ad- 
vanced "upgrading" is especially necessary. 

3. Historically, there has existed little organized apprenticeship for com- 
mercial callings — which are largely modern evolutions. But now many of 
these vocations attract no less than the professions; hence a constant 
striving upward from agricultural and industrial pursuits to commercial 
work, often less well paid (except for winners of great prizes) but more 
clean and "respectable." Note apparent suitability for young women. 

4. "Commercial education" has long been in the United States the most 
widely available form of supposedly vocational education supported at 
public expense. Public departments have tried to combine offerings sim- 
ilar to those of private "business" schools with non-classical "general" 
secondary education. The actual resulting vocational education has prob- 
ably been weak, diluted, misleading; while even in best schools genuine 
vocational standards are as yet rarely defined. 

a. Nevertheless, since large numbers of young people strive to- 
wards commercial vocations, ineffective, even fraudulent, 
schools draw well, and "every little" of training helps. But 
the need is great for honest vocational commercial education. 

b. Tendencies now strong to "generalize" types of commercial ed- 
ucation. Prospective stenographers are forced or urged to take 
bookkeeping, commercial geography, and a foreign language on 
educator's assumption that she "might need these." Note also 
curious array of studies provided because employers prize "gen- 
eral intelligence." Many commercial departments still aanere to 
superstition that algebra is important. Many have also fallen 
victims to delusion that vocational studies should be accepted 
towards college admission. 

c. Also anti-social tendency exists to establish uniform require- 
ments of age, general education and length of vocational cours- 
es for all commercial vocations. There are many juvenile com- 
mercial vocations, ought not "short unit" vocational courses be 
provided for these at 14 or 15? Is stenography normally a 
juvenile vocation? Are there any grounds for assuming that 



COMMERCIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 209 

persons should try to sell insurance or automobiles before 25 ? 
d. Note, too, absurdity of prevalent ideas as to "general vocation- 
al" subject matter. What is "business English"? What things 
in English should be especially well learned by: the stenogra- 
pher ; the telephone switchboard operator ; the floorwalker ; the 
stockbroker ; the restaurant cashier ? Similarly examine : "busi- 
ness arithmetic" ; commercial law ; commercial geography. 

5. There is a place, especially in junior high school (ages 12-14), for 
"commercial arts" for general education (see that chapter). Many pupils 
taking this will enter commercial schools or vocations, and parents will 
try to derive advantages of vocational education from early courses; but 
"liberal" aims should be adhered to. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
HOMEMAKING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

1. The following figures give workable estimates of scope of vocational 
home-making in the United States. 

Table showing number of persons over lOi years of age in all occupations and 
in homemaking occupations. (C/. S. Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 &,075,0O0 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 

Homemakers and Homemakers' Assistants 

Homcma,kers (estimated) 20,000,000(1) 

Female servants (really homemakers' assistants) 1,309,500(2) 

(1) U. S. Census, 1910, gives: 

Women over 15 years of age (single) 8,933,170 

Women over 15 years of age (married, widowed or 

divorced) 21,045,983 

(2) From census division "Domestic and Personal Service." 

2. In spite of frequent extra-home specialization of many lines of pro- 
duction, once centered in all homes — spinning, weaving, gardening, skin tan- 
ning, brewing, fruit drying, shoemaking and repair, clothing making, 
butchering, bread making, fruit preserving, teaching, nursing, water pro- 
viding, heat providing, light providing, laundry work, etc. — homemak- 
ing still remains normally a composite vocation — the major duties of which 
include : 

a. Buying, preparation, and serving of food (to adults, children, 

infants, the sick). 
h. Buying, repair, reconstruction and construction of clothing 

(much for children, some for adult women, little for adult 

men). 

c. House care — cleaning, bedmaking, etc. 

d. Laundry. 

e. Child care — infants, school children, children at work and in 
college — including physical care, moral oversight, provision for 
sociability, adjustment of work, etc. 

To the foregoing should be added minors such as: (a) house- 
hold accounting; {h) adult sociability; (c) housing and 
furnishing (selecting, buying, adapting) ; {d) nursing of adult 
sick; and {e) care of garden and yard. 

3. The relative importance (indicated by "weightings" of time, energy, 
etc., in operation or in training) of the foregoing will vary according to 
location, standard of living, income, etc. , 

a. In the modern city home "making" of clothing declines in im- 
portance while child care standards rise. 
h. Among southern negroes and recent immigrants many mothers 

2IO 



HOMEMAKING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 211 

work "outside" the home (for wages) ; hence standards of home 
care necessarily low. 

r. In rich homes the homemaker is chiefly a "manager" of workers 
at subdivided tasks. 

4. The most difficult problem in determining objectives of vocational 
homemaking are these: 

a. What are the standards of proficiency to be sought for the dif- 
ferent grades of homemaking, along the different lines given in 
(2) above? 

All homemakers now cook, sew, care for children, etc. ; but 
many do not do it with as much skill, technical knowledge, or 
social insight as we desire on behalf of the next generation. 
But it is futile to expect in followers of composite vocations 
(and from people of average rather than exceptional native 
ability) the skills and technical knowledge of specialized cooks, 
dressmakers, nurses, laundresses, chambermaids, kindergartners, 
etc. We need here accurate job analysis. 

b. When are the motives of girls probably most "ripe" for voca- 
tional homemaking? Normally a girl not working in domestic 
service is only incidentally concerned with homemaking until mar- 
riage. Do girls in general possess a genuine vocational interest 
in homemaking at 14-16 or 16-18, if they are to work in non- 
homemaking callings from close of school to age 22-26? And 
can vocational training "keep" well in "cold storage" for the 
person doing full time work as stenographer, salesgirl, or teach- 
er? May not future possibilities lie chiefly with schools minis- 
tering to women just before or just after marriage? 

c. What are the actual values for vocational purposes, of the var- 

ied appreciations and minor skills in the homemaking arts ac- 
quired from birth, to e.g., fifteen by a girl living and more or 
less helping in a non-servant keeping home? Present practice 
seriously undervalues these. Take this problem: Most of the 
present homemakers of a given community (nearly 20,000,000 in 
the United States) did not have school vocational training. Us- 
ing reasonable standards of rating proficiencies of those from 30 
to 60 years of age in community known to you, what propor- 
tions would you grade A (excellent), B (superior), C (infer- 
ior), D (poor), respectively? How did upper two grades ac- 
quire their present proficiencies? Through many mistakes? 
Too slowly? What are the weakest phases of powers of lower 
two grades? If only 100 hours of training could have been 
given them between age 19-25 on what should it have best 
focussed? 



212 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Problems 

1. Make "job analysis" of five days work of homemaker (aged 33) with 
normal family (four children) located: (o) on small, poor farm remote 
from village and railway station in Michigan; (b) in New York City 
apartment, rent $1200; (c) in suburban "separate house" home, family 
income $4500, Illinois City. 

2. Given a suburban home of two adults and four children, ages 3 
to 15. Place in parallel columns articles of wearing apparel (and usual 
year's cost) (a) commonly made in the family and (b) commonly bought 
ready made. (Include hats, shoes, umbrellas, gloves, etc.) 

3. Case O. Daughter of Irish born parents, artisan father, average intelli- 
gence, graduates at 15 from elementary school, becomes clerk in depart- 
ment store (cotton dress goods), living at home. Wages increase from 
$7 at sixteen to $16 at 22 (1914 standards), of which she pays half at 
home. Expecting to marry at 23, she enters three months, full-time vo- 
cational school of homemaking (to give 56 hours weekly), with facilities 
for part-time practice work in own home or wage-paying home in the 
"West End." Problems: 

a. What should the school expect, and what test her for as to 

(o) appreciations, (b) skills of performance, and (c) technical 
knowledge ? 

b. What should the school provide as central features in her pro- 
gram? 



CHAPTER XL 

INDUSTRIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
1. Scope of field for industrial education. 

Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations and 
in industrial occupations — Group A. (t7. 5". Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 

Extraction of minerals 963,730 1,094 

Coal mine operatives 600,500 45 

Gold and silver mine operatives 55,400 39 

Other mine operatives 136,000 141 

Quarry operatives 81,000 45 

All. others in this division 78,000 464 

Manufacturing and mechanical industries 8,837,901 1,820,980 

Apprentices 100,000 15,500 

Bakers 85,000 5,000 

Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen 240,500 31 

Brick and stone masons 170,000 15 

Builders and building contractors 173,500 849 

Carpenters 817,000 38 

Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters 113,500 14,000 

Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) . . 1,500 448,000 

Electricians and electrical engineers 135,500 92 

Engineers (stationary) 231,000 10 

Firemen (except locomotive and fire department) 111,000 

Foremen and overseers (manufacturing) 155,000 20,000 

Laborers (not otherwise specified) : 

Clay, glass, and stone industries 152,500 2,500 

Food industries 75,500 6,000 

General and not specified laborers 853,500 16,000 

Helpers in building and hand trades 65,000 79 

Lumber and furniture industries 313,000 4,000 

Metal industries 519,000 9,000 

Textile industries 71,000 16,000 

All other industries 351,000 35,000 

Machinists, millwrights, and toolmakers. 488,000 93 

Managers and superintendents (manufacturing) . . 103,000 1,500 

Manufacturers and officials 252,000 5,000 

Milliners and millinery dealers 5,500 122,500 

Molders, founders, and casters (metal) 121,000 117 

Painters, glaziers, varnishers, enamelers, etc 335,000 2,500 

Plumbers and gas and steam fitters 148,000 

Semiskilled operatives (not otherwise specified) : 

Ciga'r and tobacco factories 80,000 71,500 

Clay, glass, and stone industries 79,000 9,500 

Clothing industries 96,000 49,000 

Food industries 52,000 36,500 

Lumber and furniture industries 154,000 13,000 

Metal industries 394,000 44,000 

Printing and publishing 33,000 34,000 

Shoe factories 122,000 59,000 

Textile industries 298,000 352,000 

All other indtusries 318,000 145,000 

Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory) . . 60,000 213,000 

Shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory) 69,000 782 

Tailors and tailoresses 164,000 41,000 

Tinsmiths and coppersmiths 60,000 24 

All others in this division 669,000 10,500 

213 



214 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 



Transportation 2,531,075 106,596 

Bfakemen 92 SOO 

Conductors (steam railroad) 65[500 

Conductors (street railroad) 57,'000 

Draymen, teamsters, and expressmen 408,000 7i 

Foremen and overseers (railroad) 70,000 240 

Hostlers and stable hands 63,000 6 

Laborers (railroad, steam and street) 567,500 3,500 

Laborers (road and street building and repairing) 180,000 

Locomotive engineers 96,000 

Locomotive firemen 76*000 

Longshoremen and stevedores 63,'000 44 

Mail carriers 80,000 1,000 

Motormen 59,000 

Switchmen, flagmen, and yardmen 85,000 52 

Telegraph operators 62,000 8,000 

Telephone operators 9,500 88,000 

All others in this division 496,000 5,000 

Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations and 
in industrial occupations — Group B. (t/. S. Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000 000 

Domestic and personal service (except female servants) 1,241,328 1,221,346 

Barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists 173,000 22,000 

Bartenders 101,000 250 

Boarding and lodging house keepers 23,000 142,500 

Charwomen and cleaners 7,000 27,000 

Hotel keepers and managers 50,000 14,000 

Housekeepers and stewards 16,000 173,500 

\ Janitors and sextons 91,500 21,500 

Laborers (domestic and professional service) .... 50,000 3,000 

Launderers and laundresses (not in laundry).... 13,500 520,000 

Laundry operatives 36,000 76,000 

Midwives and nurses (not trained) 16,000 117,000 

Porters (except in stores) 84,000 7Z 

Restaurant, cafe, and lunch-room keepers 50,000 10,500 

Saloon keepers 67,000 1,500 

Servants 263,000 1,309,500* 

Waiters 102,500 86,000 

All others in this division 97,000 6,000 

Public service (not elsewhere classified) 445,733 13,558 

Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers 78,000 103 

Laborers (public service) 66,500 729 

Officials and inspectors (city and county) 50,000 2,500 

Policemen 62,000 

Soldiers, sailors, and marines 77,000 

All others in this division 69,000 608 

*Here omitted — included under homemaking. 

2. Sharp distinctions essential between vocational education for specific 
industries and manual training or industrial arts for general education. 

a. From certain industries, particularly those retaining primitive 
characters (employing handicraft largely) have been taken ex- 
ercises and elemental practices (together with related technical 
studies) for "manual," or "technical" education, for experience 
giving, etc. (cf. Weaving, clayworking, basketry, mounting, 
stenciling, in lower grades ; metal work, woodworking, printing, 
intermediate grades; metal work, turning, pattern making, 
foundry, electrical work in highest (ninth to twelfth) grades. 



INDUSTRIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 215 

As recent occasional developments, add: work with jewel- 
ry, pottery, house repair, concrete, painting, machine (bicycle, 
motor, sewing machine) repair, shoe repair, bricklaying, car- 
pentry, power engine operation. 

b. A percentage of pupils will find vocational leads here. Read- 
justed industrial arts may yet serve in vocational guidance. 
Propose plans for such, assuming need of guidance, among 
twenty typical industries. 

3. Problems of establishing as basis of programs of industrial educa- 
tion "age of efficient entrance" to each of above. 

a. Many specialized factory callings are able to use "full respon- 
sibility" workers at ages younger than 14. (Note history of tex- 
tile, mining, small metal working, and food packing industries.) 
Examples. 

b. On the other hand, many others are open only to men and 
women of maturity, substantial physical development, and ex- 
perience. Examples. 

4. Problems of establishing character and extent of effective by-edu- 
cation for respective callings. 

a. Note that in productive fields not composed of severely com- 
peting units, tendency to elaborate means of vocational educa- 
tion in school is marked, (cf. Telephone, printing, certain spec- 
ialty manufacturers.) 

b. Analyze causes for decline of apprenticeship in factory or other 
subdivided fields of production. 

5. Problems of defining vocational efficiency — in any industrial calling in 
terms of: (a) skill and other specific habits that may well be "taught" 
by specialized school processes: (b) skill and other results in habit that 
can ordinarily come as by-products of long experience; (c) technical 
knowledge (intelligence, insight) that can best be taught either (1) in 
advance of, (2) concurrently with, or (3) subsequent to, "school" prac- 
tice, through specialized school education; (d) technical knowledge avail- 
able through school education in (1) advance of, (2) concurrently with, 
or (3) subsequent to, "life" (commercial) practice; (e) technical knowl- 
edge obtainable only from practical experience; (/) vocational sociology 
obtainable from school education ; and (g) vocational sociology obtain- 
able only from experience. 

6. Above vocations require differentiation into "handicraft" trades and 
specialized operative pursuits — factories, mines, transportation, distance 
communication, specialized domestic service. 

a. Note that handicraft trades tend steadily to decline as men con- 
trol natural power — steam, gas, electricity — and delegate work to 
machines. Handicraft work increasingly confined to "dispers- 
ed" vocations — building, personal service, and repair work. 



2l6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

b. Note that peace no less than war (because of multiplying popu- 
lation, rising standards of consumption — quantitative no less 
qualitative — and unwillingness to do hard maunal labor) inces- 
santly demands "quantity production" of "standardized" goods 
(or parts) — bricks, lumber, shoes, cotton fabrics, canned fruits, 
loaves, chairs, novels, newspapers, automobiles, coal, railway 
coaches, lead pencils, men's hats, childrens' dresses, windows, 
underwear, candies, buttons, leather bags, hams, cereals, talking 
machines, furnaces, and, now, houses, ships, and streets. Farm- 
ing and housekeeping demand standard processes and more 
power driven machines. 

c. One grade of producers become "tenders of machines," while 
other Ibecome repairers : (a) locomotive engineers, chauffeurs, 
automatic stop loom operatives, street car motormen, coal 
miners, shoemakers, factory machinists, saw mill workers; (b) 
shoe repairers, plumbers, house carpenters, electricians, "all 
round mechanics." 

d. Much of machine production can be done by girls or men of low 
native ability — textile-making, clock-making, typesetting (by 
machine), bookbinding, fruit canning, cigarette making, 

e. But also other varieties require careful training and maturity — 
tractor driving, machine shop work, engine firing. 

/. Highly specialized production inevitably tends towards regimen- 
tation of workers, i.e., specialization of inventive, financing, 
managing, supervising productive (in narrow sense), marketing 
functions — <with places for all grades of ability and training, 
and, if morale is preserved, opportunities for each to reach place 
of maximum productiveness. "Man is tool using animal" — and 
the locomotive, steamship, building elevator, automatic stop loom, 
farm tractor, cannon, coal cutter, sawmill, printing press, auto- 
mobile, telephone, sewage pipe system, dynamo and dynamite 
are his latest and best tools — notwithstanding the doubts of the 
intelligenzia of whom academic schoolmasters are unfortunately 
often a part. 

7. Regimented production provides numberless opportunities for ad- 
vancement — up-grading — of workers as maturity, training and morale de- 
velop. But, unlike handicraft trades, the ascent is not on inclined plane, 
but a series of often high and difficult "steps." Hence vocational educa- 
tion for higher stages can only seldom be given in adolescence — perhaps 
vocational guidance must be postponed also. Need of upgrade schools for 
.nost workers at ages 18-22, 26, 30, etc. Transition from wage-earning for 
girls to homemaking presents same conditions. Sometimes wage-earning 
experience is an asset — from domestic service, teaching, nursing; or 
perhaps not, or even a hindrance — factory, store, office. But "upgrading" 
work cannot well be done in evening extension schools. 



INDUSTRIAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 21 7 

8. Methods of industrial education determined by manipulative and 
specialized character of most industrial vocations. Specific objectives can 
be ascertained only by job analysis — first of the B grade workers now 
found. Basic industrial education almost necessarily involves large parti- 
cipation in productive work — which had best be on wage-earning basis. 
Hence need of "part-time" arrangements, especially for subdivided produc- 
tion involving expensive equipment. Plumbing and repair trades can be 
taught in school plant ; but no successful examples exist of effective school 
plant (with genuine productive work) for coal mining, shoe manufacture, 
cotton cloth weaving, meatpacking, watch making, newspaper manufacture 
furniture making, etc. 

9. Extension industrial education now found in many varieties in even- 
ing and correspondence schools. It succeeds largely in proportion as : 

a. It is correlated with clearly defined ai;d differentiated vocations 
as now practiced, and does not involve undifferentiated subjects 
such as "mechanical drawing," "shop mathematics," "principles 
of electricity," etc. 

b. It is restricted and related to parallel practical work being 

followed oa*side of school hours. 

c. It is organized on a "short course," "amply documented" 
basis (booklet form preferred) for workers of average powers 
of foresight and imagination. 

Problems 

1. Make job analysis of optimum combinations of qualities now found 
in B grade workers of three following vocations, as respects respectively, 
manipulative skills, related technical knowledge, and special vocational 
appreciations (health, civic, cultural) : baker, coal mine operator, locomo- 
tive engineer, spinner (girl 15-20), wood working mill specialists operative, 
streetsweeper, shoe factory foreman, saw mill manager, brick layer, shoe 
cobbler, drayman, mail carrier, telegraph operator (supply others), 

2. From your knowledge of conditions now in America what are pre- 
vailing shortages — skills, technical knowledge, social appreciations, health 
appreciations — in above vocations (or others selected) ? Of these which 
could vocational schools probably correct? Which could they probably not 
reach? 

3. What industrial vocations are now prevailingly "women's work?" 
Men's work? In what fields are transitions taking place? Why? 

4. What are estimated proportions of men and women in all industries 
at ages 16-20; 20-24; 24-32; 32-48? Why are women not found in coal 
mining, railroading, brick masonry? 

5. Do women wage-earners prevailingly command as much wages as men 
at ages 15-18; 18-24; 24-36; 36-60? Why? 



CHAPTER XLI 
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 

1. The following are the professional callings as given in the census of 
1910. 

Table showing number of persons over 10 years of age in all occupations, and 
in professional occupations. (U. S. Census 1910.) 

Male Female 

All (gainful) occupations 30,091,000 8,075,000 

Homemakers (estimated) 20,000,000 

Professional service 929,684 733,885 

Actors 16,305 11,992 

Artists, sculptors, and teachers of art 18,500 15,500 

Civil and mining engineers and surveyors 59,000 5 

Clergymen 1 17,000 685 

Lawyers, judges, and justices 114,000 558 

Musicians and teachers of music 55,000 84,500 

Physicians and surgeons 142,000 9,000 

Teachers 121,000 478,000 

Trained nurses 6,000 76,500 

All others in the division 280,000 57,000 

2. Distinctions between "professions" and other callings are not well es- 
tablished. "Is teaching a profession?" a question debatable according to 
standards. But 

a. Direct school vocational education first developed for certain 
professions — medicine, law, theology, engineering, elementary 
school teaching. 

b. They attract and reward, usually, superior grades of ability. 

c. Old conception of close connection between professions and 

leadership probably of diminishing importance. 

d. Also old conception of large "unpaid service" rendered by pro- 
fessional men. 

3. Note general insistence on extensive "general education" as preliminary 
to professional school study — but whether such general education actually 
tunctions or should function chiefly as (a) culture desirable in a profes- 
sional man, (b) preparation for professional studies (in knowledge and in 
mental training), or (c) selection of the natively superior, is not yet clear, 
at least to educators. 

4. New callings appear in modern life which are essentially professions — 
business administration, military leadership, journalism, public service ad- 
ministration. But it is difficult to define definite preparation for these 
callings, hence selection and self -training plays largest part in preparation. 

2l8 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 219 

5. For certain professions, vocational schools have hardly as yet been 
developed — acting, high school teaching; whilst for others schools are just 
evolving — journalism. 

Problems 

1. The largest current problem of objectives in professional education 
grows out of tendency towards specialization. Medicine differentiates to- 
wards surgery, dentistry, optometry, osteopathy, and also towards special 
service for nerves, stomach, nose and throat, etc. Law has several special- 
ties and teaching many more. But upholders of historic order desire 
"general" preparation in the profession before specialization begins. 
Engineering education now proliferates. Shall we expect in medicine 
future specialists to be trained as are now dentists and optometrists— with- 
out general basis? 

2. Many institutions give, not basic vocational education for profes- 
sions — especially law, engineering, high school teaching — but only technical 
studies of importance in such preparation; but summer practice work is 
beginning of reform. 

Hence still survive problems of degrees; shall teachers be content with 
A.B., B.S., A.M., Ph.D., or should they obtain degrees indicative of their 
professional competency in performance? Some agricultural and engineer- 
ing colleges still give the B.S. for professional courses. 

Prediction : that eventually every distinctive type of each profession 
will have its appropriate degree indicative of the tested ability of the 
holder to perform, to do, and not merely of knowledge possessed. Teacher 
training institutions might well give a score or more of such degrees — for 
the kindergarten teacher, the primary supervisor, the physical education 
director of elementary schools, the secondary school teacher of mathe- 
matics, etc. 



CHAPTER XLII 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

1. The functions of school-controlled and school supervised education 
in promotion and conservation of physical well-being will include : 

a. Such instruction of one generation as may secure better heredity 
in the next. (An obscure field as yet — see discussions of 
eugenics). 

b. Such development, instruction, and training as will enable 
parents of next generation to provide better material environ- 
ment and by-education for young. 

c. Use of school as center of suggestion and possible direction to- 

wards home and other responsible agencies to secure better 
material conditions for development of present generation. 
(Applicable chiefly to distinctly subnormal homes, and to be 
exerted chiefly through specialized agencies, e.g., school nurs«, 
school physician, day nursery, care-taker, home and school 
visitor, etc.). 

d. Provision through school of means of nurture. (Except in case 
of children deprived of parents, probably of little application. 
School meals clearly a palliative. If public agencies must enter, 
then more comprehensive policy needed.) 

e. Enlistment of home in improving by-education of individual to 

prevent illness, promote self-development, etc. (a large field, re- 
quiring extension of functions of "health department — beyond 
scope now planned for school physician, school nurse, etc.). 
(Only a slightly practicable field for "regular" teachers — possibil- 
ities in day nursery, kindergarten, country school.) 

/. Enlistment of home and other agencies in improvement of 
collective means of physical well-being — playgrounds, school 
health supervision, sanitation, (flies, water, communicable dis- 
ease, etc.). 

g. Improvement of conditions under which school activities are 
carried on, as these affect physical well-being. (A large field, 
requiring development of scientific technique and special agen- 
cies.) 

h. Provision of means, incentives and requirements for physical 
play. (A field with little specialized knowledge or service as yet; 

220 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 221 

control of athletics, however imperfect now, perhaps a begin- 
ning.) 

i. Provision of means and requirements for physical work. (A field 
now ignored, but probably of signal importance.) 

y. Positive physical training. (Various attempts made heretofore — 
gymnastics, calisthenics, etc.— probably of little significance. 
Dancing has possibilities, but belongs to play — ^beta — group. 
Corrective gymnastics, technically individualized, probably im- 
portant for a small minority.) 

k. Boy Scout and other similar large activities probably of much 
promise. Fundamentals of military power — special powers, 
walking, creeping, climbing, running, wading, swimming, sleep- 
ing out, burden carrying, rifle shooting, grenade throwing, trench 
digging — possible of accomplishment on beta basis, using volun- 
teer squads, leaders assigned for "short units" responsibility. 
Specific military exercises probably must be carried on by extra- 
school agencies — if under 18, at summer camps, etc. 

/. Extensive development of intellectual appreciation of ideals, prin- 
ciples, facts of physical development, sanitation, individual 
hygiene, possible through use of "beta learning" devices, as yet 
but imperfectly developed. Lectures (specialists in sex hy^ene, 
etc.), moving pictures, (community sanitation), attractively pre- 
sented readings (all phases) and many other means available. 

m. Possible fields for "alpha" types of instruction not yet clearly 
defined. 

Problems 

1. The specific objectives of physical education are as yet very poorly de- 
fined. The following include some important problems now requiring in- 
vestigation : 

a. To what extent is it desirable or expedient that physical func- 

tions probably not to find employment in civilized adult life 
should be left systematically underdeveloped in youth? 

b. To what extent is physical work probably a necessity to physical 
development? (Note especial application to middle economic 
class girls — receiving chiefly intellectual education, and sharing 
largely in social play life.) 

2. Given case of boys in hilly region where dairy farming is prevailing 
occupation. Streams and groves abundant. Residences average one-half 
mile apart. Three-fourths of boys will follow fathers' occupations, one- 
fourth "will work in town." Snow falls deeply in winter, and boys do 
moderate amounts of fishing and hunting. Rural elementary schools' 
average 160 days attendance per year, town high schools — to which about 
40 per cent ablest pupils go for 1-2 years, and 20 per cent, 3-4 years, 180 



222 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

days. From age of five onwards have chores and by ten are doing regular 
work with cows, home wood supply, etc. 

Assume yourself asked to prepare scheme of physical education — county- 
wide and county supervised — for this region with possibilities of ample 
funds — possible maximum $10 per year for maintenance, and $3 for 
capital outlay per school pupil — what would be (A) your first judgment 
and (B) your plans for research into following questions : 

a. In former years have large proportions of bo} s of this region 
reached adult years in "bad" physical condition? What were 
probable chief causes of the "bad" physical condition? Pre- 
mature physical work or overwork? Underwork? Insufficient 
play? Insufficient nurture? Insufficient medical care? Bad 
hygienic conditions in homes — what? Bad hygienic conditions in 
schools — 'what? Absence of physical training? 

What proportions reached adult years in probably "good" 
physical condition — by standards of your expectancy as to longe- 
vity and health, or other reasonable basis ? In what respects as 
to play, work, medical care, nurture, etc. did these differ from 
those rank was "bad"? 

h. In what respects are the boys of to-day coming up under condi- 
tions more favorable than their forbears? Under conditions 
less favorable? As far as practicable develop here (1) physical 
diagnosis and (2) physical prognosis for boys of this region 
at ages 6-9, 9-12, 12-15, 15-18, having in mind different tj-pe 
groups if you think these can be distinguished. 

c. Select one or more age levels, and propose programs of physical 
education, giving separate recognition (including estimates of 
cost) to following factors (add others as desired, and designate 
types of general or special service — resident or peripatetic — ex- 
pected to be employed) ; (1) health inspection by physican (in- 
cluding dentist, oculist, etc.) ; (2) health supervision by nurse — 
school or district; (3) instruction in hygiene and sanitation; 
(4) general physical training — calesthenics, gymnastics, directed 
sports, etc.; (5) special (i.e., individually corrective), physical 
training; (6) supervision of physical work; (7) supervision of 
mental work (hygiene of school life, etc.) ; (8) provision of 
facilities for play, sports; (9) influence of nurtural conditions. 

3. Make corresponding study for girls in same environment. 

4. Prepare corresponding studies for boys or girls of following case 
groups : 

5. Boys of prairie agricultural region with minimum of live stock farm- 
ing, of opportunities for hunting, fishing, sledding, etc. ; poor local water 
supplies, and a prevailing scarcity of hired help for heavy farm work. 

6. Girls of a crowded tenement district ; mostly immigrant parents, 
seriously "dislocated" as to ancestral custom; home hygienic conditions 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 223 

low; community sanitary conditions good as to water and sewage, bad as 
to garbage, parks, and sunshine, fair as to control of contagious diseases; 
little physical work until wage-earning at fifteen begins, then work of 
artificial kinds — factory for average, office or store for keenest; schoal 
attendance 180 days, much "formal" drill and long "home lessons" ; school 
has medical supervision only to control contagious diseases, no physical 
training, and only weak instruction in hygiene. 

7. Girls of a prosperous suburban environment ; good home medical 
attendance; 100 days each summer in camp or country home; much social 
life ; parents ambitious for social and intellectual success of girls ; sports 
and even athletics popular, but real physical work taboo; school has suffi- 
cient medical inspection, favors formal calesthenics and at all stages gives 
good instruction in hygiene. 

8. Colored boys in manual working class neighborhood (supply social 
diagnosis). 

9. Administrative proposals. 

a. The long school day, covering both alpha and beta intellectual 
and physical activities — seven hours per day for pupils 6-12, 
eight hours for those 12-18. 

b. Discontinuance of all "home work" or home study of alpha type. 

c. Development throughout system of agencies responsible for 

school's share in promotion and conservation of physical well- 
being — such agencies to include expert medical service, but to 
be under pedagogic direction superior to that now by-produced 
from medical service. 



CHAPTER XLIII 

GUIDANCE 

A. General 

1. Guidance as a function of educational agencies may be (a) educa- 
tional guidance, (b) vocational guidance, and (c) civic guidance. 

a. Guidance for some or all activities and responsibilities of life is 
normally one product of by-education in home, shop, and mis- 
cellaneous association of club and street. It is also a by-product 
(often unconscious) of school education, as this gives insight, 
arouses ambitions, shapes ideals. 

b. Contemporary demand is for guidance on scientific and purpos- 
ive basis as far as practicable, (a) After period of elemen- 
tary education, students confronted by variety of educational 
possibilities. Choice of curricula, election of courses, necessary. 
At present either blind tradition, caprice, or suggestion of as- 
sociates largely controls. Intelligent direction is wanting, (b) 
Between 14 and 20 almost all youths make momentous voca- 
tional choices. Under primitive conditions where son follows 
father in career, or under rural conditions, where few varieties 
of openings exist, situation not so serious. But under modern 
conditions (specialized work, mobility of labor, varying needs 
of technical preparation) existing situation of hisses faire very 
wasteful of energy, health, happiness, (c) Young citizen in 
allying self with party, in starting family, in considering place 
location, making investments, etc., often in need of assistance 
not obtainable from ordinary agencies of by-education. 

2. Great desirability that in schools should be developed facilities for 
guidance for youths over 12 years of age, whether in full-time attendance 
or not. Guidance can make use of following means : 

o. Publicity as to educational, vocational and civic possibilities. 
Involve (o) development of reading in great variety and of 
much concreteness and suggestiveness ; and (b) lectures, illus- 
trated and others serving similar purposes. Should include 
agencies of idealization. 

b. Facilities for individual consultation with specialists informed 
as to possibilities and capable of interpreting needs and powers 
of prospectors (those seeking to make wise choices). 

224 



GUIDANCE 225 

c. Tests, examinations, and other scientific means of diagnosing 

qualities of prospectors and of prognosticating probable direc- 
tions of successful application. 

d. Finding agencies (for schools, employment openings, facilities 
for further investigation, etc.) to intermediate between pros- 
pector and appropriate lines of future activities. 

3. Economy and effectiveness to be achieved for persons under twenty 
or twenty-five only by keeping within school organization guiding agencies 
(libraries, tests, expert advice, permits, etc.), training agencies (voca- 
tional schools), and placement agencies, all under specialized and compe- 
tent direction. 

a. Note tendency to have vocational education provided paralleling 
vocational pursuit — and in dull seasons as self-chosen, "short 
sessions." Vocational school best special means of vocational 
guidance. 

h. Note probably large use to be made of specific guidance litera- 
ture — ^reading, etc. 

4. Necessity of basing guidance on accepted optimum standards of: 
(a) economic differentiation, productiveness, and shifting; {b) cultural 
attainment; and (c) civic participation. 

a. Note need of revision of prevailing of conceptions of "social 
service." 

h. What are cultural contributions of vocation? 

c. Note specializing of employing functions in large commercial 
agencies. 

d. Problems of "over-crowded" fields of work. 

5. Desirable that vocational training and vocational participation, volun- 
tary as to field, shall ultimately be prescribed for all. But prescription of 
special forms only for minority of "slackers" who will not make choice 
for selves. 

a. Where shall training for national defence enter? 

h. Idealistic proposals for "moral equivalents of war." 

B. Economic and Social Aspects of Vocational Guidance 

1. Vocational Guidance can now mean two things or be of two forms 
(hereafter called Informative and Diagnostic). 

a. Imparting of information about : varieties of work now avail- 
able in the world; native and acquired qualities most suited to 
its performance; idealization of right work attitudes, vocational 
advancement, etc. (Co-mpare with school and class instruction 
in hygiene, idealization of health and the like.) For these ends 
can be used: lectures, guided readings, various emotional 
appeals. Courses (not in too formal a sense) can be offered as 
electives to classes prevailingly from 13-14 years of age, 15 to 



226 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

16 years of age, etc. This work properly a part of general 
education. 

b. Expert examination of an individual towards definite recom- 
mendations, possibly prescriptions, as to: kinds of work he is 
now unfitted for; kinds of work he could not well prepare 
for; kinds of work to which, by virtue of native powers, ac- 
quired powers, economic resources, etc., he is now fitted ; kinds 
of work to which, with proper education, he might become fitted. 
(Compare expert diagnosis of oculist, physician, psychiatrist, 
with consequent prescriptions against or for certain kinds of 
action.) Obviously this form of guidance must be individual, 
and should be available as far as practicable: (a) when the in- 
dividual is ready to take further education of vocation or pre- 
vocational nature (define prevocational educational) ; (b) when 
he is ready to seek employment; and (c) when he seeks to pass 
from juvenile or other earlier to later and higher stages of em- 
ployment. 

c. Assuming the presence of an abundance of easily read books 

about vocations in the library of the junior high school, could 
best services be rendered under (a) by having a departmental 
teacher give two hours a week to lectures and conferences 
centering around reading? What part could be played by visits 
to farms, factories, stores, etc? Would it be advisable to have 
recitations? If the school is large would it be advantageous to 
have a woman teacher of the subject for girls, and a man for 
boys? Could classes for this purpose well be as large as 100? 
Should pupils study anything here? What? 

d. Under what conditions could a pupil be required to undergo 
examination under (b)? Where not required, what motives for 
electing such examination could be expected (specify probable 
circumstances in : a college ; high school upper classes ; with 
retarded pupils in grades) ? 

2. The need of vocational guidance (to individuals) of a systematized 
kind under specialist school or employment auspices (informal vocational 
guidance under home and other agencies has always been available) in- 
creases greatly, if social efficiency (social economy) is to be realized, in 
proportion as : 

(1) The variety of occupations open to an individual increases. 

(2) The requirements of many of these vocations become technical 
and difficult. 

(3) Vocations are carried on in places invisible and inaccessible 
to growing youths. 

(4) Apprenticeship, with its formal arrangements, selections, and 
responsibilities declines. 

a. What are the occupations normally open and desirable in central 
North Dakota respectively to: a fifteen year old boy of good 



GUIDANCE 227 

Strength and manual ability and no strong intellectual interest; 
the same youth at twenty-one, assuming him to have worked 
meanwhile as a hired man at general farming; a girl at fifteen, 
of musical promise, poor parents, but girl and parents very 
ambitious for her; a farmer's daughter of good general scho- 
lastic ability, but poor health and greatly disliking farm life; a 
boy of fifteen, of prosperous parents with excellent health and 
mathematical abilities, very ambitious? Given a high school of 
100 pupils in Streeter, N. D., would you advise inclusion of 
vocational guidance in courses? What kinds? To what ex- 
pected ends? 

b. What are the occupations normally open and desirable in New 
York City to : the son of prosperous American parents who has 
excellent ability in athletics, mathematics, and "society," is very 
ambitious, and promises to be of the "executive" type; the 
daughter of rich Jewish (recent immigrant) parents, artistic 
(plastic and graphic) interests and some ability, poor scholar- 
ship in formal subjects, not good English speech, excellent 
health ; the daughter of poor parents, strong in body, but low 
and backward in school work, and looking upon all work as a 
curse ; the son of poor artisan parents, very keen mentally, 
eager for business success, but in poor health, and of irritable 
disposition? Given junior and senior high schools and evening 
schools in New York City, what would you recommend as to 
time and place of informative vocational guidance courses? 
Kinds of courses? Kinds and places of diagnostic work? For 
what purposes? 

c. Examine relative needs of vocational guidance in : rural sections 
of central Texas; rural areas of Georgia (for colored popula- 
tion) ; Worcester, Mass. ; Stockton, Cal. — giving separate con- 
sideration to : girls of low or average abilities in poor families ; 
boys of exceptional specific abilities in poor families; and other 
realistic case situations. 

3. The need of systematized vocational guidance to society (for the sake 
of leadership, avoidance of discontent, general health, avoidance of useless 
sacrifices, etc.) becomes great in proportion as: 

(1) Society develops great need for talented leadership or expert 
service. (Note means by which candidates in America are 
selected for West Point, for medical colleges, for scholarships, 
for specialized work under national, state and municipal civil 
service, for promotion in business, for certification as teachers.) 

(2) Occupations develop to the point where very purposive training 
is requisite, and where ill-prepared individuals suffer greatly. 
(Note conditions now to be met by one w*ho would "succeed" as 
farmer, stenographer, mine manager, hotel cook, public singer, 
travelling salesman, promoter of oil well drilling operations.) 



228 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

(3) Economic evolution creates conditions inimical to the health of 
all but specially fit or specially prepared individuals (note writ- 
ings on "industrial diseases" and the pathological accompani- 
ments of stone-cutting, elementary school teaching, mattress 
making, rag sorting, pottery manufacture, navigation, nursing, 
farming, steel working). (Consider separately for these 
workers: girls; mature women; boys; mature men.) 

(4) Economic evolution creates conditions of work so complex that 
the worker believes himself exploited and prevented from shift- 
ing or advancing as he desires. (Note that under primitive con- 
ditions man worked against nature, whereas in advance economic 
organization he seems to be working chiefly against, or in com- 
petition with, other humans; that he needs for his contentment 
knowledge .as to whether he is in right work, etc.) 

a. Is it probable that the proportion of persons naturally endowed 
as geniuses (of various species), leaders, altruists (of excep- 
tional influence), vagrants, subnormals, etc., is substantially the 
same everywhere — country and city, Massachusetts and N. Caro- 
lina, peoples of Huguenot and of Italian ancestry? Under 
similar social stimulus should we expect as many inventors from 
Georgia as Connecticut, as many feminists from the farms as 
from the suburbs, as many morons from Denver as from Fall 
River? Should and could society do more than it now does to 
try to discover potentialities in youth of promising poets, opera 
singers, military leaders, inventors, business executives, pugi- 
lists, baseball players, moving picture artists, physicians, teachers, 
statesmen ? 

b. Historically has it been true that "anyone" could be farmer, 
country school teacher, homemaker. Congressman, salesman, 
storekeeper? Enumerate vocations now demanding (e.g., in 
morning World, New York) workers who need only be "bright 
girls," 16 years or more old. What are the vocations now open 
to more or less "broken" elderly women of no education? What 
are vocations now open to impoverished "gentlewomen"? 
Middle-aged farmhands? City-raised boys of 15? Steel factory 
workers of ten years operative specialization? 

Could one of these classes easily become a sailor, general ma- 
chinist, watch repairer, dressmaker, vaquero, chauffeur, steno- 
grapher, dentist, actor? What qualities do bright girls, 18-25, 
bring to rural school teaching that men 25-40 who will work 
for the same money do not? A high school principal declares 
that employers only want in a boy that he has "pep" and in a 
girl that she is "quiet." Interpret? 

At what age do men or women normally become : school 
principals; mine foremen; policemen; locomotive engineers; 



GUIDANCE 229 

college teachers; Congressmen; travelling salesmen; sailors; 
"full responsibility" homemakers (through marriage) ; sea- 
captains ; business "managers" ? What minimum general school- 
ing is expected (by employing authorities) to precede in each 
case? Vocational schooling? Experience in related voca- 
tions? What unrelated vocations may precede? 

c. In a certain area granite stone cutting is the most accessible em- 
ployment for muscular men of mechanical leanings. The tuber- 
culosis rate is high in this industry. What problems arise for 
vocational diagnosticians ? 

What evidence have you that the following are relatively un- 
healthful occupations; cotton textile work for girls, 15-20; busi- 
ness leadership for men, 40-60 ; farm life for homemakers ; 
bookkeeping for men, 30-60; elementary teaching for women, 
30-40; medicine for women; hotel waitress service for women, 
25-35 ; stoker and firing service on steamers ; general work in 
dynamite factories; coal-mining; railway switching. What are 
your present prepossessions as to these and twenty other voca- 
tions to be named by you? Do you consider facts as to the 
vocational healthf unless of these callings important in guidance? 
How can sound generalizations be procured? 

d. Why do so few of the following leave their adverse home sur- 
roundings : Labrador fishermen, Bedouin Arabs, French 
peasantry, Central African negroes? Why do the following 
migrate : Irish peasantry, Russian Jews, mountain whites of 
Appalachians, Japanese, gipsies? Do the same peoples work 
generation after generation in American coal mines? cotton 
mills? farms? teaching professions? Why? In which of the fol- 
lowing vocations do your preposessions suggest that workers are 
most exploited or disadvantaged by "man' contrivance" : coal 
mines, ten-cent stores, hospital nursing, pioneer farming, elemen- 
tary school teaching, college teaching, laundry work, waiting 
service in large hotels, navy, tropical fruit growing, matrimony 
and homemaking (among the poor), market gardening? Com- 
pare the following vocations as to opportunities for intimate 
relations between employers and employees : law-offices ; men's 
hat factories; cartridge factories; small grocery stores. What 
relative scope do each of these vocations give for exercise of the 
"creative impulse" (which first define) : small pioneer farming; 
watch factory operative; department store clerk; coal miner, 
locomotive fireman; farm homemaker (Nebraska) ; orange 
grower? Which of the following vocations possess for you (or 
young persons known to you) the deepest halo of general at- 
tractiveness : candy store clerk; sea captain; bedside nurse; high 
school teacher; diamond cutter; gold miner (on small scale); 

raisin grower (California) ; fur trapper? Does distance (and 
what else) lend enchantment to the view? 



230 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Give examples where real apparent vocational "misfitting" is 
now readily possible, giving sources of your impressions. 

4. Vocational opportunities are at any given time limited by: 

(1) Social demands for particular service; 

(2) Accessibility of openings to potential workers ; 

(3) Possession of capital and tools ; 

(4) And by numerous minor factors. 

a. Estimate on basis of census figures probably annual replace- 
ments needed in the United States in the following fields of 
service : physicians ; high school teachers, farmers ; opera 
singers; elementary school teachers; building carpenters; 
diamond cutters; novelists; stenographers; automobile factory 
operatives; coal miners; domestic servants, 

b. What will be probalble openings (a) within California and (h) 
outside that state, caused by annual replacements of : lawyers, 
dentists, textile mill operatives, locomotive engineers, oil-well 
drillers, bank clerks, homemakers, firearm mechanics, teachers 
of music? 

c. Out of 100,000 girls in the fifth grades of certain village schools 

in Iowa what proportion will or can normally find vocational 
openings as : physicians, 30-50 ; homemakers, 20-60 ; elementary 
school teachers, 18-24; same, 25-60; domestic servants, 16-22; 
same, 23-60 ; opera singers ; civil service research specialists ; 
farm operators ; newspaper editors ; dentists ; store (indoor) 
clerks or saleswomen; barbers, saleswomen at salaries upward 
of $3,000 ? 

d. Out of 1,000 girls graduating from general courses in high 
schools in suburbs of Chicago, what numbers could and should 
find vocations as : trained nurses ; counter saleswomen ; "ladies 
of leisure"; lawyers; homemakers, 25-60; professional actresses; 
domestic servants ; farm laborers ; railway operatives ? 

e. Of 1,000 boys finishing first year of four year high school what 
proportion, in a city like New Orleans, is likely to become: 
agricultural field hands ; physicians ; high school teachers ; skill- 
ed well workers ; farm owners ; trained nurses ; hotel cooks, 
stenographers, 30-60? What changes of proportions would you 
predict for 1,000 high school graduates, same environment? 

/. In a certain reform school in a New England manufacturing 
state are 400 boys age 13-17. Nearly all are retarded and more 
or less corrupted. Some are keen and lawless, many plodding 
and dull. Assuming possibilities of 1,200 hours of good voca- 
tional training in schools or corresponding part-time and ap- 
prenticeship, what vocations would seem most promising for 
them? 



GUIDANCE 231 

g. In a certain North Mississippi Valley State is a school for the 
persons blind from early childhood. The school is endowed to 
give 1,200 to 2,400 hours specific vocational training from ages 
16-20. Take its problems as your own; are there vocations that 
prefer a blind to a seeing person of equal native and acquire 
qualities? What are vocations which would probably prefer a 
blind to a seeing person otherwise equal at 20 per cent, less 
wages? Is it expedient to train blind boys of good ability to 
be : dentists, high school teachers of mathematics, piano tuners, 
chauffeurs, cooks, farm operators? Should the girls try to be- 
come : nurses, primary school teachers, typists (without stenog- 
raphy), homemakers? What is now known about vocations for 
the blind of each sex, where competition with seeing of equal 
ability and perhaps less training is practicable ? 

h. To what extent should possible mobility of workers figure in 
vocational guidance? Compare the relative mobility (ability 
to leave home and travel to distant places) of following work- 
ers ; girls, 15-20, of poor parents, living in city, and of average 
"manual worker" abilities ; girls, 20-25, college graduates ; boys, 
farm reared, suited to general "manual work", poor parents ; 
boys, excellent ability, fairly prosperous families, trained for pro- 
fessions ; skilled machinist with family of five children, active 
member of a church of small denomination ; woman secretary 
age 45, with life-long associations in home place, 

i. Under what conditions as to local openings, native abilities, sex, 
age, and possibilities of vocational training would good guidance 
advise girls from prosperous Minnesota farms to seek musical 
or acting vocations in New York ; farm boys of mechanical 
bent to become city mechanics ; boys of large eastern cities to 
become farmers ; girls of village environment of excellent abil- 
ities and general college education and genuine interest in hav- 
ing families of their own to become lawyers or doctors ; stenog- 
raphers from Montana to seek Washington Civil Service post; 
native American southern negroes to seek barbering in New 
York? 

y. What are now the various roads by which boys become "owning 
farmers" with land and equipment worth from $10,000 to $30,- 
000? A city boy of 18, physically hardy and mentally able but 
owning no capital and with no prospects of inheritance, is keen- 
ly desirous of becoming an orchardist; what would you tell him? 
A country boy of 16, excellent ability, but no actual or prospec- 
tive capital, greatly desires to become a merchant in a large 
city; advise him. A city girl of much enterprise, good educa- 
tion, and prosperous parents, but no capital of her own, is 
zealous to become a farmer ; advise her. 
What capital is now normally required, after completion of 



232 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

vocational education, to equip necessary offices and to tide over 
"acquaintanceship" period for one who would be an independent 
dentist ; plumber ; shoe repairer ; doctor ; lawyer ; grocer ; pharm- 
acist? 

k. Under what circumstances would you advise a college girl of ex- 
cellent ability, in her third year college, to study architecture ; a 
high school boy of bookish interests and moderate ability to be- 
come a country school teacher; a high school girl to seek a 
vocation that would not interfere with her matrimonial chances ? 

Would you advise a Massachusetts negro to enter a normal 
school in that state? A bright negress in a Rochester high 
school to prepare in stenography? A girl of native American 
stock seek a career in domestic service ? A boy to follow stenog- 
raphy as a life career? A Russian Jewess of exceptional abil- 
ity, but pronounced racial characteristics, to seek a high school 
position in Georgia, or Texas, or northern New York? A bright 
hunch-backed girl to become a primary school teacher, a train- 
ed nurse, a salesgirl, or a proof reader. 

Certain vocations are good for juveniles but poor for adults. 
What would you advise workers as to "upgrading" or advance- 
ment? Discuss in this connection: textile operative work, grade 
teaching, "ten cent store" salesmanship, switch board operating, 
cigarette making, telegraph messenger service. 

5. Problems of vocational guidance arise largely from defective soci- 
ological and psychological knowledge. Among current problems are these : 

(1) Are certain vocations more "overcrowded" than others? By what 
standards? For what reasons? 

(2) What is the full social significance of highly specialized produc- 
tion, and what should be expected to be the normal progress and stay of 
workers in them? 

(3) Under what circumstances and to what extent can or should voca- 
tional guidance "blacklist" undesirable or anti-social vocations? 

(4) What are the possibilities of "dual" or "alternate" or "major" and 
"minor" or "dull season" vocations? 

o. At the present time do you think that stenography is more "over- 
crowded" than domestic service? Medicine than electrical en- 
gineering? General factory work for girls than farming? Ele- 
mentary school teaching than travelling salesmanship? What, 
as you see it, are the least, and what the most overcrowded fields 
now for: "unskilled" men workers, strong and mature? Aver- 
age young girls of 16 in New York, with one year of high 
school education ? For strong high school boy graduates able to 
give five or six years to professional education? What is the 
real meaning of : "There is always room at the top" ? 
In what vocations does alleged overcrowding seem the result 



GUIDANCE 233 

of indeterminate standards, or greatly variable standards under 
the same vocational name? Illustrate from farming (in days 
of public land settlement), public office holding, stenography, 
domestic service, brokerage, indoor salesmanship. When an em- 
ployer asks: "What can you do"? and the younger applicant 
replies, "Anything," what does he mean usually? 

What are some vocations now imperfectly developed which 
you think likely to develop greatly during the next few years? 
Would you advise persons of apparently suitable talent to try to 
become moving picture actors, brewers, orange growers, adver- 
tising illustrators, bond salesmen, high school teachers? 

What are now the most "popular" vocations with college 
women; men graduates of Harvard and Yale; boys of excep- 
tional mechanical ability? 

b. Analyze processes of subdivision of labor found in producing: 

shoes ; cotton cloth ; knitted goods ; watches ; cartridges ; auto- 
mobiles ; packed fruits ; pamphlets ; newspapers ; telephony ; rail- 
way transportation; ready-made clothing; fountain pens; table 
pottery; coal; steel rails; staple furniture; sugar (beet) ; sugar 
(cane) ; raw rubber ; men's hats. 

Within any one of these fields, give varieties of workers, pro- 
ducers, supervisors, etc., grades (as expressed in compensation), 
and number in each. What facts can you discover as to rel- 
ative maturity of workers in each grade? Under what kinds of 
vocational education could workers of sufficient maturity be ad- 
vanced to higher grades? 

What are your chief prepossessions against specialized work 
on the score of physical healthfulness? psychological healthful- 
ness? social healthfulness? Contrast (in order to show effects of 
specialization) workers from farming, homemaking, retail shoe 
clerking, janitor service, peddHng, sheep herding with workers 
of similar age, sex, and income from furniture factories, steam- 
er navigation, locomotive manufacture, book manufacture, 
street car driving. 

Define forms of leadership and highly paid special service now 
found in : street car operation ; department stores ; telegraphy ; 
cloak manufacture; and explosives manufacture. To what ex- 
tent and under what circumstances are these "advanced from 
the ranks"? Is it presumably economical for a street railway 
system to pay its president $65,000 a year? 

c. What are some anti-social vocations besides burglary and other 

felonious pursuits ? What place do you give to : cigarette mak- 
ing, tobacco farming, fire arms manufacture, "patent medicine" 
manufacture, military training, oil mining, stock brokerage, 
advertising illustration, opera singing, diamond cutting? Which 
of these vocations do you regard as of greatest relative service 



234 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

to society: rural school teaching, fruit farming, jewelry making, 
commission merchant service, novel writing, dentistry, moving 
picture operating, naval service? How would or should recom- 
mendations or vocational guide be affected by valuations here? 
Should vocational guidance urge : Boys to "stay on the farm" ? 
Girls to strive decently towards matrimony? Young workers to 
get into work "without bosses"? All person to get "civil ser- 
vice" government places? Girls and women to get into fields 
now largely occupied by men? Men to take indoor salesman- 
ship? Men to take elementary school teaching? 
d. Some vocations and especially those of a primitive type are com- 
posite — e.g., general farming, homemaking, small retailing, gen- 
eral handiwork, domestic service, machine repairing. Many 
other tend toward simplification. The following special prob- 
lems arise : 

(a) Is is desirable and expedient that a specialized operative, work- 
ing with one type of machine, should be able to transfer to 
others, in case inventions or shifts diminish important of his 
specialty ? 

(b) Is it desirable and expedient that workers in "seasonal'' indus- 
tries qualify to carr}- on others in "off" seasons (elementary 
school teachers often wait on table in summers ; harvest hands 
take up railroad or lumbering work in winter, etc.) ? 

(c) Where factory operatives have eight hour day (and, in growing 
season, forty-four hour week) are gardening, poultry raising, 
etc., desirable and practicable minor vocations? 

(d) Married women, under some circumstances, claim to find home- 
making duties insufficient to fill all time. Can and should they 
seek opportunities for wage earning in teaching, farm labor, hotel 
service, factory wark, writing, music? Discuss for poor eco- 
nomic levels (negress field workers), higher economic levels, 
and others. 

6. The case method of study is now profitable means of opening up the 
actual problems in this largely unexplored field. As fast as practicable 
persons with professional aims here should assemble realistic cases. The 
following hypothetical types of cases are submitted as illustrative : 

Case A: (individual). A boy in Bridgeport, Conn., has reached 16 
years of age and just graduated from the elementary school. His father 
is a janitor, American born, his mother Irish born and of meagre educa- 
tion. Neither desires to support the boy longer in school (there are four 
smaller children in famil}^. The boy has lost interest in general schooling 
(has been two years retarded) and is eager to earn money. Wants to be 
an electrical engineer, editor, or leading business man. Was low grade in 
school studies except vocal music in which he has moderate talent. Bridge- 
port is chiefly a machine shop city, with usual commercial openings. It 



GUIDANCE 235 

has good day trade school (2 years course) besides evening classes for 
persons employed in the shops. 

a. What do you know of opportunities in Bridgeport and vicinity? 

h. This boy desires advice as to next 10 years. What further facts 
do you need to know regarding him ? What would you now ad- 
vise him to do? 

c. Assume that he enters a gun factory as machine operative, and 
at 19 is earning $30 per week, but is restless and wants promo- 
tion or a new type of work. What facts would you need to 
know and what advice could you now give? 

Case B. (individual) In Albany, N. Y., a girl (Ellen) of 17 has just 
graduated from the classical high school. Her parents are poor Irish 
people with six children, all slow but Ellen, whom they have favored 
at much sacrifice because of her intellectual brilliancy. Earlier she was 
eager to teach, but her schoolmates have persuaded her that teaching is 
cheap and poor work and gives no chance to meet men. Ellen is especially 
strong in English, but poor in mathematics and music. Her parents can- 
not afford to send her to college; her mother is convinced that Ellen will 
marry by the time she is twenty. There is a large commercial department 
in the local high school, but no other opportunities for vocational training. 
The girl is in fair health, but inclined to nervousness. She may have to 
lielp towards the education her younger brothers and sisters. 

a. What are the principal accessible vocations of Albany? 
h. Would you care to give this girl vocational tests? 
c. Make recommendations looking to the (a) next two years ; and 
ih) the next five years, on assumption she will not marry. 

Case C (school). The junior high school of N. in Mass. has 1,200, 7th 
and 8th grade pupils, besides 200 retarded boys and girls over 12 and under 
16. The community is mostly suburban. About 400 of the pupils come 
from homes that will not oppose their leaving school as soon as the law 
allows ; and about 800 from families very ambitious to have their children 
finish high school. The school offers generous and flexible programs of 
manual training and household arts, a slight amount of gardening and no 
commercial work. All pupils leaving school after 14 must get working 
papers, involving a physical examination and capable of involving such 
other examinations as may be desired. 

The school authorities have been convinced that vocational guidance is 
desirable and have appropriated $2600 annually for this purpose (but 
with stipulation that not more than $2000 shall be spent on salaries). But 
they have as yet no program and have asked superintendent to make rec- 
ommendations. He asks you to submit yours. Especially does he want 
to know : (a) Should one full-time guidance teacher be employed, or a 
man for the boys and a woman for the girls? {b) Should proposed work 
be chiefly informative and inspirational, or diagnostic and placement? (c) 
Should any of it be obligatory on (1) all pupils or (2) pupils applying 



236 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

for working papers, or should it be elective? (d) Should time be given it in 
the regular schedules of studies? Where? How much? For whom? (e) 
Is it desirable that the guidance teacher or teachers should influence aims 
or other studies? (/)What should be specific character of offerings (con- 
sider regular instruction, guided readings, individual advising, class visits 
to mills, lectures by teacher, etc.) ? 

Case D (school). In a prosperous farming (and related commercial) 
area in eastern Kansas is a high school of 200 pupils. The principal has 
given $600 yearly to provide for vocational guidance. Nearly half the pu- 
pils will graduate, and half of these will go to normal schools and agri- 
cultural colleges. Many of the boys want to follow farming, but the girl"? 
aspire to urban work and permanent residence. Give this principal advice 
as to how to proceed. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
CURRICULUM PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION 

1. A curriculum is a collection of subjects of study suited to the educational 
needs of a defined group of learners. The objectives of education for the 
group should be implicit at least in the documented curriculum ; and scien- 
tific clearness will be greatly furthered if, following diagnoses of present 
adult and learning groups, the objectives sought are themselves formulated 
as the basis of curriculum and program proposals. In a detailed cur- 
riculum, means (texts, readings, experiments, projects, problems) and 
methods (of organization, teaching, testing) may be indicated ; while a 
collection of textbooks or manuals constitutes the most detailed supple- 
mental guidance for work. 

2. The objectives of a curriculum (and hence the curriculum itself) can 
best be studied in connection with "case groups" of fairly homogeneous 
character. The following pages give preliminary descriptions of over one 
hundred case groups, to which students are invited to add others. For ef- 
fective work: 

a. Amplify in detail the essential present prevailing characteristics 

of the case group. 

b. Diagnose as far as practicable the prevailing characteristics of 
present-day adults who ten to thirty years ago were learners of 
qualifies corresponding to those of the case group being con- 
sidered. 

c. Prognosticate as far as practicable future prospects of case 
group if the proposed curriculum were not available for them. 

d. For the time being ignore temporary administrative limitations in 
carrying into effect proposed curriculum, including scarcity of 
competent teachers, lack of equipment, heterogeneous rather 
than homogeneous character of school attendance, especially in 
small places, etc. 

e. When optimum curriculum has been formulated, indicate changes 

necessary for schools exhibiting specified limitations of means, 
teaching personnel, or attendance. 

3. Before proposing school objectives, estimate (eventually we must find 
ways of determining scientifically) (a) contributions of previous by-edu- 
cation, {b) contributions of parallel by-education, and (c) results of pre- 
vious schooling. 



238 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

4. You may within a given environment group differentiate those of 
very high and of very low intelHgence from the modal group for pur- 
poses of proposing objectives for each grade. 

5. In studies, subjects or other curriculum elements sharply differenti- 
ate developmental from projective objectives (alpha beta objectives). 

6. Differentiate vocational from "general" or liberal objectives; and pre- 
ferably, where practicable, differentiate physical, social and cultural objec- 
tives. 

7. Distinguish sharply between prescriptions (of several varieties) and 
elective offerings. 

8. As basis for time differentiations take total numbers of hours assumed 
as available for (a) year or (b) whole curriculum (perhaps two years — 
junior school or four years — liberal arts college) including study, recita- 
tion, and other related activities. Time for play (as part of physical edu- 
cation), excursions , general readings, etc., should all be included. 

B. Problems of Curricula for Designated Groups Under Specific 

Conditions 
Take two of groups below of same age level, and prepare curriculums, 
using some method of parallel column presentation, giving especial atten- 
tion to justification of unlike features. (As far as practicable use subject 
analyses of Chap. XLVI. 

In each case : 

a. Define (or estimate) possibilities and limitations due to heredity. 

b. Define (or estimate) conditions imposed by environment. 

c. Define (or estimate) positive and negative contributions of by- 

education (a) prior to employment of curriculum activities, and 
(b) concurrently with it. 

d. Define general and specific objectives (aims, expected results, 
goals, purposes) of curriculum on behalf of individual at close 
of curriculum period. 

e. Same, during adult prime (age 25-40 or 30-35). 

/. Define general and specific estimated objectives of curriculum 
on behalf of specified society (family, corporation, municipality, 
state, nation, religious organization, political party organization, 
international group, society in general, etc.) during three de- 
cades following close of curriculum period. 

g. Distinguish as sharply as practicable between objectives that are 
to be realized through developmental (beta — spontaneous, natu- 
ral," amateur play) activities, and those to be realized through 
systematized instruction and training ("artificial," "forced," 
work-a-day, disciplined, alpha activities). 

h. Distinguish between objectives expected to be realized: 

(1) through activities almost wholly under control of 
school. 



CURRICULUM PROBLEMS 239 

(2) those ordinarily due to agencies of by-education, and 

(3) those due to other sources. 

i. Distinguish sharply between vocational and general (or liberal) 
educational objectives. 

y. Where practicable, distinguish among objectives of liberal edu- 
cation the cultural, social (moral, civic) and physical. 

k. Distinguish sharply between schemes of offerings (with specified 
conditions of election) and prescriptions. 

1. Normals, ages 3-6, low economic level, congested urban environment, 
home-staying mother (no summer vacation removal). 

2. Normals, 3-6, high economic condition, city environment (summer 
vacation removal). 

3. Normals, 3-6, rural environment. 

4. Normals, 3-6, day-wage- working mothers, congested city environment. 

5. Normals, 3-7, day-wage-working mothers, village environment. 

6. Subnormals, 3-6, note due to hereditary causes but to deficient en- 
vironment and by-education (mal-nutrition, disease, uncleanness, bad 
habits) in congested urban environment. 

7. Normals, 3-6, of alien home language, low economic environment. 

8. Normals, 6-12, strictly rural environment (no consolidation of schools- 
practicable). 

9. Normals, 6-12, rural environment, consolidated schools of 100 or more 
practicable. 

10. Normals, 6-12, village or open urban environment. 

11. Normals, 6-12, low economic environment, crowded urban housing, 

12. Normals, 6-12, prosperous urban or suburban environment. 

13. Subnormals, 6-12, mental, as shown in school work, due chiefly to 
hereditary causes. 

14. Subnormals, 6-12 (as shown in school work) due to environmental 
causes and deficient by-education (including migratory family life). 

15. Variants — not subnormal, 6-12 (including brilliant, truant, undis- 
ciplined, etc.). 

16. Normals, 12-14, last of compulsory full-time attendance, rural en- 
vironment. 

17. Normals, 12-14, village and open city environment. 

18. Normals, 12-14, low economic conditions, city dwellers, probably 
wage-earners, 12-14 on, after period of compulsory attendance. 

19. Normals, 12-14, high economic conditions. 

20. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
commercial interests. 

21. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
mechanical interests. 

22. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, girls with household 
arts interests. 

23. Normals, 12-14, city and village environment, boys and girls with 
strong interests in abstract studies. 



240 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

24. Normals, 12-14, country environment, boys and girls with strong 
agricultural interests. 

25. Subnormals, 12-14, city and village environment (no hereditary de- 
fects but two or more grades retarded, owing to poor environment, by-edu- 
cation, etc.). 

26. Normals, 14-16, with voluntary interest in abstract studies but likely 
to leave the general school at 16. 

27. Normals, 14-16, with strong mechanical interests, not yet seeking 
special vocational education but likely to leave the general school at 16. 

28. Normals, 14-16, with strong commercial interests but not seeking 
vocational training and likely to leave general school at 16. 

29. Normals, 14-18, likely to remain four years in general school before 
seeking vocational specialization. 

30. Normals, 14-16, under economic pressure and desirous of early self- 
support; in community offering openings chiefly in specialized industry 
and commerce (differentiate for sex). 

31. Normals, 14-16, disposed to give two years to foundations of indus- 
trial training for entry upon wage-earning at 16. 

2)2. Normals, 14-16, disposed to give two years to commercial training 
for entry upon wage-earning at 16. 

ZZ. Normals, terminating general education at 16, disposed to seek em- 
ployment in wage-earning specialties. 

34. Normals, terminating general education at 16, willing to give two 
years to foundations of trade training. 

35. Normals, terminating general education at 16, disposed to give two 
years to vocational school preparation for commercial callings. 

36. Normals, terminating general education at 14 or 16, disposed to give 
one or more years to vocational training for agriculture. 

37. Normals, terminating general education at 14 or 16, disposed to give 
give four hours per week of school attendance. 

38. Normals, 14-16, in wage-earning employment, required by law to 
give four hours per week of school attendance. 

39. Normals, 14-16, employed not more than 5 hours per day or 30 hours 
per week, required by law to give 15 hours per week school attendance. 

40. Normals, 16-18, employed, not more than 30 hours per week, re- 
quired to attend school 15 hours per week. 

41. Normals, 17-25, voluntary attending evening trade extension schools. 

42. Normals, 17-25, voluntary attending evening trade preparatory 
schools. 

43. Normals, 17-25, voluntary attending evening schools for general edu- 
cation. 

44. Normals, 17-25, voluntary attending evening social center schools. 

45. Normals, 17-25, voluntary attending evening homemaking schools. 

46. Normals, 14-25, voluntary discontinuing wage-earning employment 
for short course industrial preparatory instruction. 

47. Normals, 14-25, voluntarily discontinuing work for short course voca- 
tional commercial education. 



CURRICULUM PROBLEMS 24I 

48. Normals, 14-25, voluntarily discontinuing wage-earning employment 
for short course homemaking training. 

49. Normals, voluntarily attending full-time agricultural preparatory or 
extension vocational school. 

50. Vocational education for teachers, of first 6 grades. 

51. Vocational education for teachers, junior high school specialties. 

52. Vocational education for teachers, secondary school specialties. 

53. Vocational education for teachers, industrial school specialties. 

54. Vocational education for teachers, homemaking specialties. 

55. Vocational education for teachers, agricultural vocational schools. 

56. Vocational education for teachers, commercial vocational school. 

57. Vocational education for school nurses. 

58. Vocational education for hospital and bedside nurses. 

59. Vocational education for public health nurses. 

60. Vocational education for (designated) professions. 

61. Blind, 4-12. 

62. Blind, general education, 4-16 or 18. 

63. Blind, 14-25, for vocations under direction of state. 

64. Blind, 14-25, for independent vocations. 

65. Deaf, 4-12. 

66. Deaf, general education, 12-16 or 18. 

67. Deaf, 14-25, vocational education for vocations under direction of 
state. 

68. Deaf, 14-25, for independent vocations. 

69. Mental subnormals, highest grade, 6-12. 

70. Mental subnormals, highest grade, 12-16 or 18. 

71. Mental subnormals, highest grade, 14-25, vocational education for 
vocations under charge of state. 

12. Mental subnormals, highest grade, 14-25, vocational education for 
independent vocations. 
IZ. Mental subnormals, intermediate grade, 6-12. 

74. Mental subnormals, intermediate grade, 12-16 or W 

75. Mental subnormals, 14-25, vocational education for vocations under 
direction of state. 

76. Mental subnormals, low grade, custodial, 6-18. 
11. Mental subnormals, low grade, for vocations. 

78. Cripple children, 4-12. 

79. Cripple children, 12-18. 

80. Crippled children, 14-25, for state controlled vocations. 

81. Crippled children, 14-25, for independent vocations. 

82. Delinquent boys under commitment or parole, 10-14. 

83. Delinquent girls under commitment or parole, 10-14. 

84. Delinquent boys, 14-18, under commitment or parole, general edu- 
cation. 

86. Delinquent boys and young men, 14-25, under commitment or parole, 
vocational. 



242 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

87. Delinquent girls and young women, 14-25, under commitment or 
parole, vocational. 

88. Male prisoners, long term and recidivist, over 25, for institutional 
vocations. 

89. Female prisoners, long term and recidivist, over 25, for institutional 
vocations. 

90. Unemployed and vocationless adults. 

91. Immigrants, non-English speaking, 12-16. 

92. Immigrants, illiterate, 16-25. 

93. Illiterate adults, native born, o£ English speech. 

94. Special programs for talented individuals or leaders, 12-25. 

95. Vocational education for men enlisted in navy. 

96. Vocational education for men enlisted in army. 

97. Education of boys, 14-17, for national defense. 

98. Education of men, 18-25, for national defense. 

99. Vocational education for prospective bricklayers. 

100. Do. for garden farmers in (specified locality). 

101. Do. for homemakers, urban dwellers, family income $900 to $1350. 

102. Do. for stenographers in large commercial houses. 

103. Do. for mates on lake vessels. 

104. Do. for specialized shoe operators in factories. 

105-110. Vocational education for other specific fields to be selected. 

C. Curricula for Case Groups 

Each study should involve a running comparison of proposals, etc., for 
two groups having the same arable number : 

la. Children, aged 4-6, of crowded manual working class environment, 
large famiHes, mothers not working for wages, parks twenty minute 
distant, streets dangerous, sanitary conditions poor, parentage largely 
foreign. 

lb. Children, 4-6, of prosperous suburban environment, good cultured 
homes, safe streets, abundant play places, fair sanitation, three months 
seashore or mountain vacation residence, etc. 

Ic. Children, 4-6, of backward rural area, small homes, mother not 
strong in hygiene or homemaking, homes average one quarter mile apart, 
half the families tenants of foreign ancestry, residence continuous, 
through year. 

Id. Student may supply. 

2a. Children, normals, of prosperous suburban environment, good cul- 
tured homes, ample sanitary play spaces in and out of homes, all may 
be expected to finish high school. About three months can annually be 
spent in mountain and seashore vacation, famiHes small, mothers anxious 
that sdhools take large responsibilities if health of children is not im- 
paired. 

2b. Normal children, 6-9, of crowded factory environment, largely for- 
eign parentage, mothers not working for wages, fathers earn ample for 



CURRICULUM PROBLEMS 243 

nurture and clothes, but home standards of food preparation, hygiene, 
culture and morals low. Large majority of children will leave full-time 
schools at 15 or 16 and enter manual occupations. No vacation period 
away from home, environment offers only traffic crowded streets and 
few vacant lots nearby, parks distant, photo drama theatres abundant, 
only evening newspapers generally read. 

Students may analyze still further essential general characteristics of these groups. 

2c. Normal children, 6-9, prosperous farming environment, homes aver- 
age 600 yards apart, region broken by hills and streams, farming of "gen- 
eral" t3^e including live stock. Parents interested in better homes and 
extension courses, will try to send children to high school, agricultural 
college, normal school. Consolidated school accessible, transportation 
averaging two hours daily. 

2d. Student may supply. 

3a. Children, normal physically and up to grade, aged 9 to 12; fathers 
skilled, well-paid workers ; American ancestry ; mothers average elemen- 
tary school education; fair home makers. Homes, separate or semidetach- 
ed houses, not crowded; adjacent parks, and streets fairly safe; general 
civic conditions of city bad. Few of the children w^ill become wage earners 
until sixteen, and half will go through general, commercial, or industrial 
schools, and will strive towards other than manual vocations. Cultural 
opportunities of homes are meagre, but commercialized amusements, in- 
cluding Reaches abundant; good public library, poorly used; year-round 
residence in homes. 

3b. Children slightly subnormal physically, but up to grade, aged 9-12, 
in crowded, poor apartment house neighborhood; fathers mostly of 
foreign birth, in unskilled or factory operative work, earning wages which 
enable families to live without wage earning of mother, if children (4-8 
per family) begin wage earning at 14; little interest in high school or 
higher education and eighty per cent of children will leave school when 
law allows (14 for those past 5th grade). No good vocational schools 
accessible; local hygienic, moral, and civic conditions bad; no parks, no 
vacation trips. 

3c. Children, 9-12, of prosperous suburb, expected to go through high 
school and towards professions or high business callings; spacious homes, 
three months summer vacation away from home possible, if school closes 
long enough; mother cultured, but busy with social obligations, some use- 
ful, some diverting, some harmful. Children read magazines and library 
books freely ; and are allowed freely to patronize movies ; girls are re- 
strained from rougher sports and have insufficient outdoor life. 

3d. Children, 9-12, irregular in health, culture, and school grades ; in 
backward hilly farming district, parents dissatisfied, but thriftless ; sanitary 
conditions bad; farms originally good (markets are near) but deterio- 
rated ; little encouragement yet for farm extension workers and abler 
farmers tend to move out for better land, schools and surroundings ; no 
opportunity for consolidated school, but situation permits trained and ex- 



244 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

perienced teacher to be employed, with good schoolhouse ; boys help much 
on farm, but prevailing attitude is to go to nearby factory work when old 
enough; only negligible proportion of boys and girls will go to distant 
high school; no agricultural school accessible. 
3e. Student may supply. 

4. Assume for cases 4a to 4d inclusive, existence of large (1200 seat) 
well equipped high school (abundant shops and playgrounds and some 
garden space) with all needed departmental teachers and pupils coming 
from all kinds of urban environments. Two hundred pupils are over 12 
and under 16, but below 7th grade in formal (alpha) subjects. Separate 
curricula are provided for each of four potential groups distinctive by 
virtue of abilities and probable prospects, but with no distinction as to 
class membership in common subjects and understanding that while 
teachers can advise any individual as to curriculum best suited, parents 
finally decide; and no pupil can be excluded from a subject or curriculum 
except on established evidence of inability to meet its standards. 

4a. Three hundred boys, 12-14, normal in health and grade, of only aver- 
age or poor intellectual interests, of strong athletic interests and some 
disposition towards skilled manual employment; because of home con- 
ditions will probably go to work before 16; environment is not conducive 
to very good citizenship, or refinement of manners ; half-developed "trade 
school" (carpentry, machine shop, printing, electricity) available after 14. 
Recommend details of curricula of prescribed, alternative, and optional 
subjects. 

4b. Two hundred girls, 12-14, of poor families ; girls intellectually keen 
and parents ambitious for them, but burden of keeping them at school 
after 14 will be onerous, as families are large ; poorly developed physically, 
and prospects of ill-health; marriage usually takes place at 21-24; oppor- 
tunities available for commercial and factory work (last is unpopular) ; pre- 
vailing manners coarse, English imperfect — and tastes for amusements low. 

4c. Boys, 12-14, of keen minds and very favorable home environment ; 
travel and camp each summer; good manners, strong tendencies towards 
athletics; speech mostly slang; will be expected to go to college to enter 
professions or business at from 20 to 25. 

4d. Student may supply. 

4e, Fifty boys and girls, one fourth of them retarded; in consolidated 
rural schools; all parents farmers of variable prosperity; children work at 
chores the year round and eight hours daily in vacation, few amusements ; 
tradition is to seek towns for work after 17; a few bright ones will be 
sent to high school and college. 

5, Assume for cases 5a to 5d large urban non-vocational high school 
with all subjects elective. Half of the subjects are organized on the as- 
sumption that students electing them will leave to enter vocational schools 
or vocational employment at 16. Teachers advise individuals and their 
parents in light of probable approximation to case group as given. You 



CURRICULUM PROBLEMS 245 

are to work out curricula to be recommended in accordance with your con- 
ceptions of desirable and practicable offerings for case groups. Assume 
existence of good commercial, and weak trade, schools paralleling high 
schools. 

5a. One hundred normal boys, 14-16, from poor homes and large fami- 
lies ; slight interest in abstract alpha studies ; strong interests in sports and 
acquiescent to prospects of wage-earning work in mechanical industries; 
may be expected to spend one or two years only in high school, and would 
probably stay two full years if some diploma recognition could come at 
end of the tenth grade; have poor civic interests, low ideals of English 
expression, and only meagre interests in general reading; health prospects 
good. 

5b. One hundred girls from rich families, large homes, expect to go to 
college, but only for social reasons as now felt; average to excellent 
mentally, nervous physically and often overwrought by social excitement; 
are extravagant, luxurious and unconsciously selfish; have never worked 
physically and do not seriously expect ever to do "hard" work of any 
kind, but the least selfish talk vaguely about "social work" and the "new 
professions for women" ; their civic ideals are half "parlor socialistic," 
half reactionary, strongly feminist, and anti-domestic; have given much 
time to music, but with no deep interest; are inveterate readers of light 
fiction ; ideals of English speech are low, and of manners "up-to-date." 
Sixty per cent will marry, 25-30; remainder will remain celibate with 
moderate inherited income. Plan curricula for grades 9 and 10 on assump- 
tion that bulk of strictly "college preparation" can be completed in grades 
11 and 12. 

5c. One hundred girls of exceptional ability, but whose families will re- 
quire them to go to work not later than 18, and some of whom will have 
to spend years 17 and 18 in vocational schools (stenography, salesmanship, 
grades). Are below par physically, excellent in civic interests and normal 
character, and not interested in serious homemaking, but can easily offer 
amateur household arts interests. Are from crude environments, effects 
of which on manners and speech lower schools have not completely over- 
come. Marriage age for the most of them will be 23-26. Plan for grades 
9 and 10 only. 

5d. Students may supply. 

6a. Fifty girls, 15-17, tired of general high school, anxious to get to 
work, but willing to give one or even two years to vocational training if 
they can see definite outcomes in wage-earning, job commanding power. 
Are from poor families, manual workers in large cities, and of only aver- 
age ability and presentableness. They despise domestic service, will take 
"dirty" factory work only under compulsion, and aspire to "clean" work, 
especially where surroundings are socially stimulating. Have no aspira- 
tions for permanent careers or to save money, and in fact may be expected 
to marry at 22-24. Give vocational guidance and plan vocational training. 

6b. One hundred boys, 15-17, strong and capable, in city of machine shop 



246 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

industries and large business, and railway facilities. For economic reasons 
all must soon be earning money. They aspire to be skilled mechanics or 
even more, but vaguely, "business men." Superintendent asks you to plan 
vocational schools and courses in light of formulated (by you) assump- 
tions as to requirements of industry (or vocational openings for workers). 

6c-6f. Group vocational cases, ages 14-18, to be supplied by student. 

7a. Fifty men, 19-30, operatives in textile mills, apply for evening work. 
Elaborate case details and proposed offerings. 

7b-7d. Other analogous cases. 

8a. One hundred pupils, 15-17, working in factories, obliged by new law 
to attend continuation school 4 hours weekly. Elaborate details, and pro- 
pose curricula and administrative conditions. 

8b-8d. Other continuation school cases. 

9a. Fifty blind youths — boys and girls, aged 14-17, obliged to leave in- 
stitution and become self-supporting at 18, with possible extension of time 
to twenty for very bright in vocational training. Have at 14 had almost 
equivalent of elementary school, education with adjustments needed by 
blind. Propose curricula, 14-17. 

9b-9e. Similar problem for other types of defectives or subnormals. 

D. Factors to be Considered as far as Practicable in Making 
Curriculum Proposals 

Do not lose sight of fact that requirements of two unlike groups of same 
ages must be basis of study, and that factors of any specific kind should 
be considered in immediate contrast or similarity, with especial emphasis 
on reasons for differences. 

1. Previous school and by-education presupposed (brief). 

2. Parallel or accompanying by-education presupposed and evaluated 
(brief). 

3. Practicable pupil-year financial resources assumed to be available 
(1920 expenditure standards). 

4. Pupil time per day, per week, and per year assumed to be (a) de- 
sirable and (b) practicably available for proposed program (but assume 
available eight hours daily in city schools if educators agree). 

5. Proposed alpha objectives primarily for good of individual. 

6. Proposed objectives primarily for society or the state. 

7. Proposed objectives functioning apparently first for good of a in- 
dividual but ultimately for collective good. 

8. Definite consideration (even if for rejection) of all objectives sug- 
gested for age group, under consideration in Chap. XLVI. 

9. Time allotment for study, recitation, development, and recreation for 
each subject or specific objective, separately considered as alpha or beta 
class objectives. 



CURRICULUM PROBLEMS 247 

10. Sociological justification of: 

a. General prescription of subject (all learners). 

b. Prescription for diagnosed group. 

c. Optional offering. 

d. Recommendation against taking. 

e. Prohibition against taking, individual or group. 

E. Suggestions for Study of "Objectives'' to be Realized Through Use 

OF Subjects Now Defined and More or Less Traditional 

(Possible reading references, see Bibliography.) 

1. What are objectives now commonly held partisans on behalf of this 
subject? 

2. What results now believed to accrue from subject as commonly or- 
ganized and presented? 

3. Critical comparison of aspirations and results of subject as now 
usually offered. 

4. Objectives that you deem valid and important for the subject for cer- 
tain specified groups of learners, and comparison of relative importance 
with other subjects that might have the time and energy proposed to be 
given to this. 

5. Proposed organization of subject to realize specified objectives. 

6. Methods proposed for the achievement of objectives through reor- 
ganized subject. 

F. Suggestions for Study of Objectives and Proposed Subject Matter 
IN A Field Now Possessing no Traditionally Organized Subject 

1. Definition of proposed objectives, and their social evaluation for speci- 
fied groups. 

2. Evidence that these objectives are not now realized by other means. 

3. Proposed organization of subject matter and method. 



CHAPTER XLV 

PROBLEMS OF OBJECTIVES OF SUBJECTS FOR 
INVESTIGATION 

1. Below are given tentative analyses of school subjects already well 
known and of some proposed new subjects. In most cases the actual 
"objectives" — ^that is, the useful purposes for individuals or for society — 
have not been well established. Numberless problems of scientific inquiry 
can easily be devised here. Following questions indicate methods of 
attack : 

a. Should the subject be required of all pupils of given grades, 
ages, or attainments? Why? What useful ends — to the indi- 
vidual, to the state, to society at large — can be served by such 
requirements (always remembering that specific educational 
values are relative to other values, educational or other, that 
could be achieved with available time and energy) ? 

b. Should the subject be required of some? Why? 

c. Should it be permitted or open to election by some? Whom? 
Why? 

d. Should it be denied to some? Whom? Why? 

2. An esssential sociological means to such study is "case analysis" — 
of individuals or groups — of adults, e.g., from age 30 to 50 — as to their 
possessions and deficiencies of the qualities expected to accrue from the 
proposed study, followed by evaluation of the advantages and disadvan- 
tages — individual and social — resulting from such possessions and 
deficiencies. 

0. It is a schoolmaster's weakness to hold that "all boys" (perhaps) 
should be taught "pronunciation" (different from that learned 
at home), Latin, civics, gymnastics or cube root without ex- 
amination of the conditions now found among adults growing 
out of former presence (or absence of such studies). 

b. To what extent do adults now use or feel the need of using: 
French, trigonometry, knowledge of the causes of tides, re- 
membered knowledge of the river systems of Asia, skill with 
saw and chisel? 

3. The "developmental" and "projective" objectives should be distin- 
guished as clearly as practicable, and social justification found for each. 

4. To prosecute the study: 

a. Clearly define what is meant by subject (with concrete instances) 

248 



OBJECTIVES 249 

b. Clearly designate the age, ability and environments with refer- 
ences to whose needs or interests it is to be studied. 

c. Indicate for these groups: (1) expected previous schooling and 
by-education related to the objectives being studied; (2) expec- 
ted subsequent educational opportunities, school and non-school ; 
(3) expected available time and energy for all school work; ex- 
pected time and energy available for subject being studied, 

d. Diagnose adults or adult groups as to qualities corresponding 
to those sought on behalf of next generation of adults. 

e. Define expectations of results in adult life — of alpha objectives; 

at least — to accrue from proposed studies. 
5. Only after the foregoing topics have had careful consideration, the 
resulting problems been defined, and tentative assumptions made, should 
questions of method of organization or presentation receive more than 
brief consideration. 

Subjects 

1. English speech for normal children, ages 4 to 6. 

la. English speech for those 4-6 with other vernaculars or home languages. 

lb. English pronunciation. • 

Ic. Special English speech for oral defectives. 

Id. Correct usage and vocabulary. 

2. English speech for normal pupils, 6-12 (give especial attention to 
effects of by-education). 

2a. Voice training, enunciation (as special objective). 

2b. Oral reading (as special objective) (special problem of oral reading as 

basis for silent reading). 

2c. Spoken vocabulary building. 

2d. Correct usage in spoken English. 

2e. Oral composition to audience. 

2f. Recitation (oral delivery to audience of memorized text). 

2g. Pronunciation. 

2h. Special classes — ^voice defectives, alien home vocabularies. 

3. English speech for normals, 12-18. 

3a. Oral composition (defined as sustained presentation to audience). 

3b. Voice training, enunciation. 

3c Spoken vocabulary building. 

3d. Oral reading and recitation to audience (elocution, oratory). 

3e. Correct usage in spoken forms. 

3f. Pronunciation. 

3g. Special classes — speech defectives. 

3h. Special classes — of alien vernacular. 

4. English speech — liberal arts college. 

5. English speech — teachers' training classes. 

6. English speech — deaf pupils, 4-20. 

7. English speech (class and objectives to be supplied by student). 

8. English writing for normal children, 6-12. 

8a. Penmanship, reading, legibility and speed of execution, as objectives. 

Typewriting as minor problem. 
8b. Spelling — quality and scope (simplified spelling, as minor problem). 
8c. Composition, written (special attention to specific or sub-objectives). 
8d. Grammar, and correct usage, supplemental to that realized under oral 
English. 



250 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

9. English writing for normal youths, 12-18. 

9a. Spelling. 

9b. Penmanship and typewriting for general use. 

9c. Grammar and correct usage. 

9d. Rhetoric and fine usage. 

9e. Written composition. 

9f. Word analysis. 

9g. English writing for stenographers. 

10. English writing in liberal arts college. 

11. English writing for blind, 4-20. 

12. English writing (special subject). 

13. English silent reading, normal pupils, 6-12. 

13a. English oral reading as basis of silent reading. 
13b. Special techniques of silent reading. 

13c. Special drills in silent reading of arithmetic, geography, history, news- 
paper. 

14. English silent reading, normal pupils, 12-18. 

14a. Grammar and rhetoric in silent reading. 

14b. Special drills on subject matter of other courses. 

15. English silent reading for special needs (subject to be supplied). 

16. Silent reading for the blind. 

17. Social education and development (including moral training, civic 
and ethical instruction, religious education, etc.) for normal children, 1-6. 

I7a. Moral habituation, by- education. 
17b. Moral habituation, kindergarten. 

18. Social education, normal children, 6-12. 

18a. Moral habituation, by- education. 

18b. Moral habituation, school groups. 

18c. Civic instruction. 

18d. History, instruction in. 

I8e. Religious education. 

18f. Current events, historical. 

19. Social education (social science, social development), ages 12-18. 

19a. Community civics. 

19b- Principles and practice of government. 

19c. Elementary sociology. 

19d. Elementary economics. 

19e. Study of nations — promotion of international co-operation. 

19f. Ethical instruction (indicate Fairchild's proposals for "character forma- 
tion"). 

19g. Boy Scout program of moral education. 

I9h. Religious education. 

] Self-government in schools. 

19j. American history. • , , 

19k. World history or special division of history as means of social educatiom. 

191. Literature as means of social education. 

19m. Other "fine arts" as means of social education. 

19n Vocational participation as means of social education. 

19o. Special problems of habituation (habits, attitudes) m moral or social 
education. • , j 

19p. Special problems of "moral or social intelligence in social education. 

19q' Special problems of formation of ideals in social education. 

I9r. Special problems of heredity ("original nature'*) in social education. 

19s. Special problems of schools* influence on agencies of by-education m 
social education. . . . , 1 r • 1 j 

19t. Education for participation in national defense as phase of social educa- 

19u. Social" education as a by-product of military education. ^ 

19v. Problems of group activities in schools as means of realizing some cads 

of social education. 
19w. Problems of "formal discipline" in moral education. 
19x.' Geography as social science study. ^ 
I9y. Current history — history in the making. 



OBJECTIVES 251 

20. Natural science for normal children, ages 6-12. (Adaptations of all 
physical and biological sciences— except portions of physiology reserved 
for physical education— to education of young people; and so defined as 
to include all approaches to correct— or non-mystical— appreciations of 
facts and interpretations of relationships, however partial or incomplete.) 

20a. Nature study. 

21. Natural science, 12-18 (defined as above). 

2la. General science, as beta subject. 

21b. Biology, as alpha subject. 

21c. Physics, two phases, general. 

21d. Chemistry, two phases, general. 

21e. Astronomy. 

21 f. Earth science or physical geography. 

21g. Physics, as prevocational. 

21h, Chemistry, as prevocational. 

2li. Problems of teaching "scientific method" in fields of natural science. 

21j. Current information as to progress of science — a proposed beta subject. 

21k. Agricultural science as element in liberal education. 

22. Science in liberal arts college. 

23. Agricultural science in vocational schools of agriculture. 

24. Physical science in industrial schools. 

25. Mental science for normal children, 6-12. 

25a. "How to study," in general, or in particular field of attainment. 

26. Mental science and development, 12-18. 

26a. "How to study," in particular fields. 

26b. Appreciation of scientific method, natural science, 

26c Appreciation of scientific method, social science. 

36d. Specific exercises inj training of designated mental powers. 

26e. Appreciations, ideals, understandings, and controlled habituations, towards 

the "trained mind." 
26f. Hygiene of mental work and play. 
26g. Objective study (case, project and topiq methods) of animal and human 

psychology. 

27. Mathematics, 6-12. 

27a. Fundamental arithmetic, written. 
27b. Fundamental arithmetic, oral. 

28. Mathematics, 12-18. 

28a. Arithmetic, general. 

28b, Industrial arts arithmetic or mathematics. 

28c Household arts arithmetic or mathematics. 

28d. Agricultural arts arithmetic or mathematics. 

28e. Commercial arts arithmetic or mathematics. 

28f. Junior high school general mathematics, alpha grade. 

28g. Junior high school mathematics, appreciative, beta grade. 

28h. Prevocational mathematics, junior high school. 

28L Algebra. 

28j. Plane geometry. 

28k. Trigonometry, pre -engineering. 

281. General mathematics, appreciation, beta course. 

28m. History of mathematics. 

28n. Mathematics, problems of correlation. 

29. Vocational mathematics. 

29a. Specialized industrial mathematics (vocation specified). 

29b. Specialized homemaking mathematics. 

29c. Specialized agricultural mathematics. 

29d. Specialized commercial mathematics (vocation specified), 

30. Geography, 6-12. 

31. Geography, 12-18. 

32. Commercial arts geography. 



252 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

33. Classical languages and literatures, 12-18. 

33a. Greek language, and literature in Greek. 

33b. Latin, language and literature. 

33c. Classical literature in translation. 

33d. Latin as medium or reinforcement of English language. 

22c. General course in classics, appreciation. 

34. Modem foreign languages and literatures, 12-18. 

34a. French reading. 

34b. French, speech and writing. 

34c. German reading. 

34d. German, speech and writing. 

34e. Spanish, commercial reading. 

34f. Spanish, general reading. 

34g. Spanish, commercial writing. 

34h. Spanish, speech and general writing. 

34i. Russian. 

34j. Italian. 

34k. Portuguese. 

341. Japanese. 

34m. Chinese. 

34n. Contemporary review of modern languages and literature (appreciative). 

35. English literature, 2-6 (including story as used in kindergarten and 
before). 

36. English literature, 6-12 (including oral story and all reading mater- 
ials not specifically technical to another subject). 

36a. Tales, stories, fiction, biography. 

36b. Poetry. 

36c. Drama and dramatization. 

36d. Literature "masses," selected to affect special field of sentiment and 
action — humane treatment of animals, patriotism, religious attitude, 
ambition for success in life, appreciation of unlike peoples, apprecia- 
tion of democratic ideals, etc. 

36e. Literature selections as basis of special English! language studies. 

37. English literature, ages 12-18. 

37a Classical prose — including 19th century. 

37b. Classical poetry and reading drama. 

37c. American prose. 

37d. American poetry. 

37e. Nineteenth century poetry. 

37f. Drama and dramatization. 

37 g. Contemporary drama. 

37h. Contemporary prose — including short and long story. 

37i. Contemporary poetry. 

37j. History of English literature. 

37k. Classical and modern foreign literature in translation. 

371. Intensive analysis of selections. 

37m. Literature — selected materials — for achievement of special objectives, 
aesthetic, historical, or social (moral), e.g., understanding of place 
of mythology, appreciation of the courtship motive, stimulation of 
ethical ideals in relations of employees and employers, inspiring rev- 
erence, idealization of moral excellence in designated fields of conduct. 
(Note difficult pedagogical problems involved.) 

38. Graphic and plastic art, 6-12. 

38a. Elementary drawing and artistic construction (representation, design, 
decoration, flat and round) (amateur execution). 

38b. Elementary graphic and plastic art appreciation (pictures, sculpture, 
decorations, "pure," "applied" in architecture, dress, landscape, other 
utilities). 

39. Graphic and plastic art, 12-18. 

39a. Freehand drawing (representation). 
39b. Mechanical drawing, general education. 
39c. Painting, general education. 

39d. Decoration and artistic craftsmanship, general education (amateur exe- 
cution) . 
39e. Drawing (mechanical or other, prevocational). 
39f. Appreciation of applied art in environment. 

39g. Appreciation and interpretation, of "pure" art — painting, sculpture, etc. 
39h. Graphic and plastic art, vocational for teachers. 



OBJECTIVES 253 

40. Music, 1-6 (in home and school). 

41. Music, 6-12. 

41a. Rote singing and appreciation — in concert and individual. 

41b. Appreciation of mechanically rendered music. 

41c. Music reading for voice. 

41d. Individual playing, instrumental. 

41e. Collective playing, instrumental. 

42. Music, ages 12-18. 

42a. Chorus singing, without reading. 

42b. Chorus singing, with reading. 

42c. Music reading and singing, individual. 

42d. Reading for instrument and playing, concert or band. 

42 e. Reading for instrument and playing, individual, 

42f. Musical appreciation, based on expert rendition supplied. 

42g. Musical appreciation, based on mechanical rendition supplied. 

42h. Selected music as means of realizing stated ends. 

43. Musical training for designated vocations. 

44. Practical arts, 6-12 (defined as manipulative work based on modifi- 
cations or extractions from adult productive activities, taken in good 
amateur spirit, etc.). 

44a. Gardening, home and school. 

44b. Co-operation with home in household arts. 

44c. Field, home and playground industrial arts. 

45. Practical arts, 12-18. 

45a. Industrial arts, junior high school. 

45b. Agricultural arts, junior high school. 

45c. Commercial arts, junior high school. 

45d. Household arts, junior high school. 

4Se. Co-operation in home maintenance, industrial arts. 

45 f. Co-operation in home maintenance, household arts. 

45g. School and public buildings repair and upkeep, industrial arts. 

45h. Market service, industrial arts craftsmanship. 

45i. Prevocational practical arts training for (specified) vocation or voca- 
tional training. 

46. Physical development and education, 1-3 (defined as conservation 
and development of physical well-being). 

46a. Community oversight and co-operation in conservation of physical well- 
being of children under 3 (prenatal, infancy, etc.), 
46b. Play and play facilities, ages 1 to 3. 

47. Physical development and education, 3-6. 

47a. Kindergarten as means. 

47b. Play and play facilities. 

47c. Special oversight for children of wage- earning mothers. 

47d. Problems of parentless children under 6. 

48. Physical development and education of children, 6-12. 

48a. Play and play facilities. 

48b. Intellectual and other school work as related to physical development. 

48c, Physical work vs. physical play. 

48d. Instruction in hygiene. 

48e, Readings and other beta activities in hygiene. 

48f. School meals, free and purchased. 

48g. Problems of alternation of work and play, length of school day, recess, 
forced play, etc. 

49. Physical development and education, 12-18. 

49a. Instruction in hygiene. 

49b. Provision of facilities for play. 

49c. Organized games and sports. 

49d. Competitive athletics. 

49e. Gymnasium training. 

49f. Military drill as physical education. 

49g. Extra -school physical work. 

45h. Extra -school activities — Boy Scout, dancing, etc. 

49i. Special hygiene — sex. 



^54 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

iot IP^'^i^ tygien<^— nervous work. 

401 iF^i\ hygiene— narcotics and stimulants. 

lo!; V^^i^Ps of effects of school work and life on permanent healtk 

49m. Provisions to insure health of girls. permanent neaitn. 

50. Physical training for (specified) vocation. 

51. Vocational agricultural education, 14-25. 

fJu* |l^'''°i"&» practical phase, for (specified) area. 

Mb. Inarming, technical phase, for (specified) area, 

ci^' ^^^'"^"S' social phase, for (specified) area. 

5 Id. Poultry-raising, practical phase, for (specified) area. 

51e. Poultry raising, technical phase, for (specified) area. 

51f. Poultry -raising, social phase, for (specified) area. 

51g. Repeat_ for other specified agricultural vocations. 

51h. Extension teaching for established specialists. 

5li. Professional agriculture for agricultural college. 

52. Vocational industrial education, 14-25. 

52a. Plumbing, practical phase for (specified) area. 

52b. Plumbing, technical phase for (specified) area. 

52c. Plumbing, social phase for (specified) area. 

52d. Textile mill doffer hands, practical phase. 

52e. Textile mill doffer hands, technical phase. 

52f. Textile mill doffer hands, social phase. 

52g. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, practical phase. 

52h. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, technical phase. 

52i. Garment makers, mechanical operating specialists, social phase. 

52j. (Repeat for other selected industrial vocations.) 

53. (Organize topics for commercial vocational education.) 

54. (Organize topics for professional education.) 

55. (Organize topics for homemaking education.) 

56. (Organize topics for nautical education.) 

57. Military training, boys 12-16. 

58. Military training, boys 16-18. 

59. Universal service training, men 18-22. 

60. Part-time military training, 18-45. 

61. Military (or defence) training, girls, 12-18. 

62. Part-time defence training, women, 18-45. 



CHAPTER XLVI 

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS OF EDUCATIONAL AIMS FOR 

INVESTIGATION 

In each case, analyze and define descriptive terms and expressions com- 
monly used. Show relation of educational objectives comprehended to 
other objectives necessary to make unified and comprehensive scheme for 
age and social groups specified. Determine whether a definitely bounded 
field of desirable objectives can best be comprehended and described by 
the terms used. Specify ages and social status groups for whom positive 
proposals are made. 

1. Liberal education, as distinct from vocational education, 

2. Cultural education. 

3. Recreational education. 

4. Education for leisure. 

5. Education for character formation. 

6. Education of taste. 

7. Education for family life. 

8. Education for national defence (not as a vocation). 

9. Education for leadership. 

10. Education for an industrial society. 

11. Education of the emotions (or feelings). 

12. Education of the will. 

13. Education of the imagination. 

14. Mental discipline through educational "simples" (mental arithme- 
tic, grammar, Latin, geometry). 



255 



CHAPTER XLVII 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 

A. Required Readings, Two Point Courses 
1. Blackmar and 



GiLLEN 

2. Kelsey, C. 

3. Tufts, S. H. 

4. Smith, W. R 

5- 



Outlines of Sociology. 
The Physical Basis of Society. 
Our Democracy: Its Origin and Its Tasks. 
An Introduction to Educational Sociology. 
To be supplied by students. 

B. Required Readings, Three Point Courses 
Introduction to the Study of Sociology. 
The Principles of Sociology. 
General Sociology. 
Pure Sociology. 
Social Control. 
Democracy and Education. 



21. Hayes, E. C 

22. Giddings, F. H. 

23. Small, A. W. 

24. Ward, L. F. 

25. Ross, E. A. 

26. Dewey, John 

27. Dewey and 

Tufts Ethics. 

28 — To be supplied by students. 

The titles under A and B are referred to by number in the text. 



Abbott, Edith 
Abbott, Grace 
Addams, J. (i) 
Addams, J. (2) 
Anderson, S. 
Angell, F. D. 
Antin, Mary 
Bagehot, W. 
Bagley, W. C 
Bailey, L. H. 

Bernheim, C. S. 
and 
Cohen, J. M. 

BoAz, F. 
Bogart, E. L. 
Bradford, G. 
Breckenpidge, S. p. 
and 
Abbott, Edith 

Butterfield, K. L. 
Calhoun, A. W. 



C. General References 
Women in Industry. 
The Immigrant and the Community. 
Democracy and Social Ethics. 
The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. 
Winesburg, Ohio — Small-town Life. 
Play. 

The Promised Land. 
Physics and Politics. 
School Discipline. 
The Country Life Movement. 

Boys' Clubs. 

The Mind of the Primitive Man. 
Economic History of the U. S. 
Tbf^ Lessons of Popular Government. 



The Delinquent and His Home. 

Chapters on Rural Progress. 

A Social History of the American Family. 

256 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 



257 



Cannon, W. B. 
Carlton, F. T. 
Carver, T. V. 
Chamberlain, A. H. 
Chapin, F. S. 
Churchill, W. 
Clay, Henry 
CoE, G. A. 
Commons, J. R. 
Con KLIN, E. G. 
Cooke, M. L. 
COOLEY, C. H. (i) 
Cooley, C. H. (2) 
coolidge, m. b. 
Country Life 
Commission 
Cram, R. A. 
Cronson, B. 
cubberley, e. p. 
Curtis, C. H. 
Davenport, E. (i) 
Davenport, E. (2) 
Davenport, E, (3) 
Davis, W. S. 
Dealey, J. (i) 
Dealey, J. (2) 
Dean, A. D. 
Deniker, J. 
Denison, Elsa 
Devine, E. T. 
Dewey, J. 
DOOLEY. W. H. 
Dry SD ALE, E. V. 
dugdale, f. l. 
Duncan, R. K. 
Eliot, C. W. 
Elliott, G. F. S. 
Ellis, H. 
Ellwood, C. a. 
Ely, R. T. 
Ferris, W. H. 
Fetter, F. A. 
FiSKE, G. W. (i) 
Fiske, J. (2) 
Forbush, W. B. 
George, W. R. (i) 
George, W. R. (2) 



Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, etc. 

Education and Industrial Evolution. 

Essays in Social Justice. 

Standards in Education. 

Historical Introduction to Social Economics. 

The Inside of the Cup. 

Economics for the General Reader. 

Education in Religion and Morals. 

Races and Immigrants in America. 

Heredity and Environment in the Development of Man. 

Our Cities Awake. 

Social Organization. 

Human Nature and the Social Order. 

Why Women Are So. 

Report. 

The Nemesis of Mediocrity. 

Pupil Self-Government. 

Public Education in the United States. 

Education Through Play. 

Education for Efficiency. 

Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals. 

Heredity and Eugenics. 

The Roots of the War. 

The Development of the State. 

The Family in Its Social Aspects. 

The Worker and the State. 

The Races of Man. 

Helping School Children. 

Misery and Its Causes. 

Democracy and Education. 

The Education of the Ne'er-do-Well. 

The Small Family System. 

The Jukes. 

The New Knowledge. 

Individualism and Collectivism in a Democracy. 

Prehistoric Man and His Story. 

The Task of Social Hygiene. 

The Sociological Basis of the Science of Education. 

Property and Contract, etc. 

The African Abroad. 

Modern Economic Problems. 

Boy Life and Self-Government. 

The Meaning of Infancy. 

The Coming Generation. 

Citizens Made and Remade. 

The Junior Republic. 



258 



EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 



Ghent, W. J. 

GiDDINGS, F. 

Gillette, J. M. 
goodsell, w. 
Griggs, E. H. 
GuLiCK, L. H. 
Haddon, a. C. 
Hadley, a. T. 
Hanus, p. H. 
Hart, F. K. 

Hayes, E. C. 
Healey, W. 
Hill, H. W. 
hollingworth, h. l. 
hollister, h. a. 
Hopkins, A. A. 
Howe, F. C. 
Hunter, R. 
Huntington, E. (i) 
Huntington, E. (2) 
Jastrow, J. 
Jenks, J. W. 
Johnson, H. H. 
JUDD, C. H. 
Keller, A. G. 
Kenngott, G. F. 
Kerschensteiner, F. 
KiDD, B. 
King, Irving 
King, W. I. 
Kropotkin, p. 
Lauch, W. J. 
Laveleye, F. 
Lee, G. S. (i) 
Lee, Joseph, (2) 
Lichtenberger, J. P. 
McDouGALL, W. 
McKeever, W. a. 
McKeever, W. a. 
Mahan, a. T. 
Maine, H. S. 
Mabie, H. W. 

Marshall, H. R. 
Mathews, S. 
Mecklin, J. M. 



Mass and Class, 

Democracy and Empire. 

Constructive Rural Sociology. 

The Family. 

Moral Education. 

The Efficient Life, 

Evolution in Art. 

Freedom and Responsibility. 

Educational Aims and Educational Values. 

Educational Resources of Village and Rural Com- 
munities. 

Introduction to the Study of Sociology. 

The Individual Dehnquent. 

The New Republic. 

Vocational Psychology. 

The Administration of Education in a Democracy. 

The Book of Progress. 

The Modern City and Its Problems. 

Violence and the Labor Movement. 

World Power and Evolution. 

Civilization and Climate. 

The Qualities of Men. 

Citizenship and the Schools. 

The Negro in the New World, 

The Psychology of the High School Subjects. 

Societal Evolution. 

The Record of a City (Lowell). 

The Schools and the Nation. 

The Science of Power. 

Education for Social Efficiency. 

Wealth and Income of the People of the U. S. 

Mutual Aid, a Factor in Evolution. 

Conditions of Labor in Modern Industries. 

Primitive Property. 

Crowds. 

Play in Education. 

Divorce, a Study in Social Causation. 

Social Psychology. 

Training the Boy. 

Training the Girl. 

The Interest of America in Sea Power. 

Ancient Law. 

Essays on Nature and Culture. (Chap. XXVI, Play 
vs. Work). 

War and the Ideal of Peace. 

Patriotism and Religion. 

Democracy and Race Friction. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 



259 



Mercier, C. a. 
Morris, R. T. 
munsterberg. h. 
Nietzsche, F. 
Oppenheimer, F. 
osborn, h. f, 
Parmelee, M. 
Poole, Ernest 
PopoNOE and 

Johnson- 
Powers, H. H. (i) 
Powers, H. H. (2) 
Powers, H. H. (3) 
Price, G. M. 
Putnam, E. J. 
Rapeer, L. W. 
Reid, C a. 
Riis. Jacob (i) 
Riis. Jacob (2) 
Rogers, F. E. T. 
Rose, J. H. 
Roosevelt, T. 
Ross, E. A. (i) 
Ross, E. A. (2) 
Ross, E. A. (3) 
Ross. E. A. (4) 
Ross, E. A. (5) 
Saleeby, C. W. 
Semple, E. C. 
Sharp. F. C. 
Small, A. 
Smith, T. R. (i) 
Smith, R. H. (2) 
Starr, F. 
Steiner, E. a. 
Stone, A. H. 
Streightoff. F. H. 
Strong, Josiah 
Summer, W. G. (i) 
Sumner. W. G. (2) 
Taylor, G. 
Tead, Ordway 
Terman, L. M. 
Thomas, W. J. 
Todd, A. J, 
Tolstoi, Leo 
toynbee. a, 



Conduct and Its Disorders. 

Microbes and Men. 

The Eternal Values. 

Genealogy of Morals. 

The State. 

Men of the Old Stone Age. 

Criminology. 

The Village, Russian Impressions. 

Eugenics. 

The Message of Greek Art. 

The Things Men Fight For. 

America Among the Nations. 

The Modern Factory. 

The Lady. 

The Consolidated Rural School. 

The Laws of Heredity. 

How the Other Half Lives. 

The Making of an American. 

Six Centuries of Work and Wages. 

Nationality in Modern History. 

The New Nationalism. 

Sin and Society. 

South of Panama. 

The Changing Chinese. 

The Old World in the New. 

What's America. 

Methods of Race Regeneration. 

Influences of Geographic Environment. 

Education for Character. 

The Meaning of Social Science. 

Commerce and Industry. 

Justice and the Poor. 

Some First Steps in Human Progress. 

From Alien to Citizen. 

Studies in the American Race Problem. 

The Distribution of Incomes in the U. S. 

The Challenge of the City. 

Earth Hunger, etc. 

Folkways. 

Religion in Social Action. 

The Instincts of Industry. 

The Measurement of Intelligence. 

Sex and Society. 

Theories of Social Progress. 

What IS Art? 

The Industrial Revolution in the i8th Century, 



260 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Tufts, J. H. The Business of Living. 

Tyler, J. M. (i) The Place of the Church in Evolution. 

Tyler, J. M. (2) Growth and Education. 

Usher, R. G. Pan-Americanism. 

Veblen, T. Theory of the Leisure Class. 

Vincent, G. E. The Rivalry of Social Groups. 

Wallace, A. R. (t) Our Wonderful Century. 

Wallace, A. R. (2) Social Environment and Moral Propress. 

Wallas. L. The Sociology of the Bible. 

Ward. E. J. (i) The Social Center. 

Ward, L. F. (2) Psychic Factors in Civilization. 

Ward, L. F. (3) Dynamic Sociology. Vols. I and IL 

Wells, H. G. (i) The New Machiavelli. 

Wells, H. G. (2) Joan and Peter. 

White, A. D. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology. 

Williams, H. S. The Miracles of Science. 

Willis, J. C. Agriculture in the Tropics. 

WiNSHip. E. A. Jukes— Edwards. 

Wood and Blatzley Is War Diminishing? 

D. Reference List of Bibliographies, Chapters XXVI-XLVI 

Many references to articles and books mav be found by consulting the 
titles given below, or related titles suggested by them, in : 

Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education. 

Poole's Index. 

Readers' Guide. 

Bibliographv of Books on Education in Columbia University Library 
(1901).^ 

Burnham, W. H. Bibliographies of Books on Educational Subjects 
(Worcester, 1912). 

Johnston, C. H. High School Education. 

Johnston. C. H. The Modern High School. 

Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education. 

Consult also Indexes and Index Volumes of : Proceedings of National 
Education Association: Educational Review: School Review; Elementary 
Journal: School and Society: Education; Report of Bureau of Educa- 
tion (Washington); Bulletins of Bureau of Education; Proceedings of 
Religious Education Association : Pedagogical Seminary ; Journal of 
Educational Psychology; Psychological Review; Educational Adminis- 
tration and Supervision. 

Explanations : B before a title indicates series of card references to 
that subject in card catalogue of Bryson Library, Teachers College. 
Thus : "B French study" indicates that under the title, "French study,'' 
will be found card references to books on that subject. 

Ch. ref. means reference lists at ends of chapters. 

Passim means references throughout text and in footnotes. 
Agricultural Arts — See also Gardening, School. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 261 

B Agriculture Study; School Gardening. 
Agricultural Education. 

B Agriculture Study; School Gardening. 

U. S. Dept of Agriculture — Publications of interest to teachers of 
agriculture. 

U. S. Bureau of Education Bull. No. 10, 1912 : Bibliography of Agricul- 
ture and Home Economics. 
Agricultural High Schools — See High Schools ; Agricultural Schools ; 

Agricultural Education. 
Algebra — See Mathematics. 
Arithmetic — B Arithmetic Study. 

Art Education — B Art; Art Study; Art, History; Art, Industrial; Deco- 
ration. 

O'Shea, M. V. : Dynamic Factors in Education. 
Art, Graphic and Plastic — See Art Education; Drawing. 
Athletics — See Physical Education. 

Biology — B Biology Study; Botany Study; Zoology Study. 
Blind — B Blind, Education of. 

Illingworth, W. H. : History of the Education of the Blind (139-142). 

Tewksbury, E. B. : Sociological Factors. 
Botany — See Biology. 

Boy Scout Education — See also Physical Education. B , Boy Scout. 
Business Education — See Commercial Education. 
Chemistry — B Chemistry Study. 
Citizenship — See Social Education. 
Civics — See Social Education. 
Civil Government — See Social Education. 
Classics or Classical Languages — See Latin. 
Colleges — B College ; College Entrance Requirements ; Coeducation. 

Walkley, R. S. : Bibliography of Relation of Secondary and Higher Edu- 
cation — U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. No. 32, 1914. 
Commercial Arts — See Commercial Education. 
Commercial Education — B Education, Commercial. 
Commercial High Schools — See High Schools. 
Composition — See English Language. 
Current Events — See History. 
Dancing — See Physical Education. 
Day Nurseries — See Nurseries. 
Deaf — B Deaf and Dumb. 

Fay, E. A.: Manual of the Deaf (contains sp. bibliography). 

Best, H. : The Deaf (footnotes). 
Defectives — See Blind ; Deaf ; Defectives, Mental. 
Defectives, Mental — B Children, Defective. 

Dresslar, F. B. : School Hygiene (ch. ref.). 

Wallin, J. E. W. : Experimental Studies of Mental Defectives (passitn). 
Delinquents — B Crime, Juvenile ; Children, Defective. 

MacDonald, A.: Abnormal Man (352-410). 



262 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Drawing — See also Art Education. B Drawing. 

Hall, G. S.: Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, Chap. XX). 
Education, Rural — See Rural Education. 
Elementary Schools — B Education, Elementary. 
English Language — B Composition, English ; Reading ; Rhetoric. 

Hinsdale, B. A.: Teaching the Language Arts (203-205). 

Klapper, P.: Teaching Children to Read (204-205). 

Baker, E. A. : ^4 Descriptive Guide to the Best Fiction. 

Barnes, W. : English in the Country School (275). 

Cook, W. A. and O'Shea, M. V.: The Child and His Spelling (267-262). 
English Literature — B Literature. 

Fairchild, A. H. B. : The Teaching of Poetry in the High School (\77- 
181). 
Ethics — See Social Education. 
French — B French Study. 
Gardening — B School Gardens. 
Geography — B Geography Study. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes. Chap. XXI). 
Geometry — See Mathematics. 
German — B German Study. 
Government, Civil — See Social Education. 
Grammar — See English Language. 
Greek — See Latin. 

Gymnasium — See Physical Education. B Physical Training. 
High Schools — 

Brown, J. F. : The American High School (398-407). 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. XXHI). 
History — 

Hall, G. S.: Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. XVI). 

Johnson, H, : Teaching of History (Bib. appendices). 

Wyer, J. I.: Bibliography — American History Association Report of 1899' 
(561-612). 
Homemaking Education — See Household Arts. 
Home Economics — See Household Arts. 

Household Arts— B Household Arts; Home; Home Economics; Home 
Economics Study; Home Education. 

U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 10, 1912. {Bibliography 
of Agriculture and Home Economics). 
Hygiene — See Physical Education. 
Imbeciles — See Defectives, Mental. 
Immigrants — B Immigrants. 
Industrial Arts — B Manual Training. 

Leland, C. G. : Practical Education, etc. (272-280). 
Industrial Education (vocational) — See also Vocational Education. B 
Education, Technical; Education, Industrial. 
Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. VIII). 
Junior High School — B Junior High Schools. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 263 

' Nat. Soc. for the Study of Education, 15th Yearbook, Pt. Ill (146-157). 
Juvenile Court — See Delinquents. 
Kindergartens — B Kindergarten. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. I). 

Guggenheimer, A.: Froebel and the Kindergarten (Bibliography). 
Languages — See Latin; Modern Languages. 
Latin — B Latin. 

Liberal Arts College — See Colleges. 
Literature, English — See English Literature. 
Manual Training — See Industrial Arts. 
Mathematics — B Mathematics Study; Algebra. 

Hall, G. S.: Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. XVIII). 

Smith, D. E. and Goldziher, C. : Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathe- 
matics. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 29, 1912. 
Mechanical Drawing — See Drawing. 
Mental Science — 

Heck, W. H. : Mental Discipline and Educational Values (199-208). 

O'Shea, M. V.: Dynamic Factors in Education. 

Rowe, S. H. : Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching (287-301). 

Sisson, E. O. : The Essentials of Character. 
Modern Languages — See also French; German. B Language Study. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. XV). 
Moral Education — See Social Education. 
Music — B Music. 

Hall, G. S. Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap. I). 
Nature Study — See also Science, General. B Nature. 
Normal Schools — B Teacher Training. 
Nurses, Training of — B Nurses, Training of. 
Penmanship — See also English Language. 

Freeman, F. N. : The Teaching of Handwriting (Bib., footnotes). 
Physical Defectives — See Blind; Cripples; Deaf. 
Physical Education — B Hygiene; Physical Training; School, Open Air. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (dancing) (Bib., footnotes, chap. II). 

Dresslar, F. B.: School Hygiene (chap. ref. and 203-211). 

O'Shea, M. V.: Dynamic Factors in Education (301-312 and footnotes). 

Rapeer, L. W. : School Health Administration (Bib. notes and ch. ref.). 

Wood, T. D. and Reesor, M. F. : Bibliography of Educational Hygiene 
and Physical Education (Teachers College). 
Physics — B Physics Study. 
Play — See also Physical Education; Playgrounds. 

Groos, Karl.: The Play of Man (Bib., footnotes). 
Practical Arts — B Arts; Arts and Crafts; Gardening; Handicrafts; 

Household Arts ; Industrial Arts. 
Prevocational Education — See Practical Arts. 
Professional Schools or Colleges — See Colleges. 
Psychology — See Mental Science. 
Reading — See also English Language. 



264 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, chap. XIX). 

Jenkins, F. : Reading in the Primary Grades (Bib., footnotes). 
Religious Education — See also Social Education. 

Hall. G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib., footnotes, chap. IV). 
Rural Education — B School, Rural. 

Betts, G. H. and Hall, O. E. : Better Rural Schools (Bib. append. I). 

Cubberley, E. P.: Rural Life and Education (349-363). 

Foght, H. W. : Rural Denmark (Bib. append.). 
Science, Elementary — See Science, General; Nature Study. 
Science, General — B Science ; Science Essays ; Science, General ; Science 
Study. 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. No. 1, 1911 (Bib. of Science Teaching). 
Science, Natural — See Biology; Chemistry; Physics. 
Self-Government — See also Social Education. B School State. 
Sex Hygiene — See also Physical Education. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problans (Bib. footnotes, chap. VII). 
Social Education — See also Religious Education. B Citizenship; Civics, 
Community; Democracy. 

Brooks, R. C. : Bibliography of Municipal Problems. 

Brown, J. F. : The American High School. 

Cabot, E. L. : Ethics for Children (passim). 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chaps. V and XXIV). 

Meyer, H. H. B. : Selected List of References on Commission Govern-^ 
ment of Cities. 

Rowe, S. H. : Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching. 

Sisson, E. O. : The Essentials of Character. 
Social Science — See Social Education. 
Sociology — 

Wright, C. D. : Outline of Practical Sociology (Bib. chap. XI-XVII and 
ch. ref.). 
Spanish — See Modern Languages. 
Spelling — See English Language. 
Teacher Training — See Normal Schools. 
Technical High Schools — See High Schools. 
Technological Schools — See Colleges. 

Trade Education — See Industrial Education; Vocational Education. 
Truants — See also Deliquents. B School Attendance. 
Vocational Education — See also Industrial Education. B Education, 
Vocational; Vocational Education. 

Brown, J. F. : The American High School. 

Hall, G. S. : Educational Problems (Bib. footnotes, chap VIII). 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. No. 22, 1913. 
Vocational Guidance — 

Brewer, J. M. and Kelly, R. W. : Harvard Bulletin on Education 
(Selected Bibliography). 

Gowin and Wheatley: Occupations (chap. ref. and appendix). 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. No. 24, 1918. 
Zoology — See Biology. 









■ -■•i :;r-->^IV,;vic 



iH,!,'^,^/^'^^ OF CONGRESS "'' 






,$: 



